Solar Activity // NASA’s Fermi Mission // Day That Changed Astronomy | S26E145

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This is Spacetime Series twenty six,
Episode one hundred and forty five, for

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broadcast on the fourth of December twenty
twenty three. Coming up on Space Time,

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a new study claims the Sun's eleven
year solar cycle will peak early,

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possibly as early as next year.
NASA's Fermi mission nets three hundred gamma ray

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pulsarsn't counting, And we look back
in history at the day which changed astronomy

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forever. All that and more Coming
up on Spacetime Welcome to Space Time with

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Stuart Gary. A new study claims
the Sun will reach the peak of its

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eleven year solar cycle early, possibly
next year. Solar Cycle twenty five began

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in December twenty nineteen with a solar
minimums smooth sunspot number of one point eight.

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It's expected to continue until twenty thirty. It marks the twenty fifth solar

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cycles since seventeen fifty five, when
extensive recording of solar sunspot activity first began.

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The Solar Cycle twenty five Prediction Panel
thinks the current cycle will be similar

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to the previous solar cycle twenty four, which was especially weak. The Sun's

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solar cycles trigger space weather events,
which can have dramatic effects on Earth.

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Space. Weather is a sudden flood
of energy and ionized particles such as protons,

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electrons, and atomic nuclei, triggered
by powerful eruptions of solar flares and

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chronal mass ejections on the surface of
the Sun. Solar flares are explosions of

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energy caused by the sudden snapping of
tangled and twisted magnetic field lines known as

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flux robes, emanating from sunspots on
the solar surface. Sunspots are cooler regions

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on the Sun's surface that appear darker
than surrounding areas. That's because the magnetic

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field lines reach out into space from
deep inside the Sun, prevents some of

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the heat from within the Sun reaching
the surface. Because the Sun's not solid,

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that a big ball of plasma.
Different latitudes of the Sun rotate at

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different rates, causing these magnetic field
lines to become tangled and twisted. Eventually

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they snap, realigning through magnetic reconnection
in the process, producing an eruption of

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the electromagnetic energy called a solar flare, which, when facing the Earth,

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can reach the planet in just eight
point three minutes. If the solar flares

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are powerful enough, they'll also eject
billions of tons of chronal plasma and embedded

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magnetic field frozen in flux. Exploding
out of the Sun. It speeds them

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up to three thousand kilometres per second, which, if facing the Earth,

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can reach the planet in just fifteen
to eighteen hours. When these geomagnetic storms

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reach the Earth, the flux of
ionized particles slam into the planet's magnetic field,

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called the magnetosphere. They're then guided
by the Earth's magnetic field lines through

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the ionosphere region already filled with church
particles, down to towards the North and

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South magnetic poles. As these charred
streams of plasma travel through the Earth's upper

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atmosphere, they collide with oxygen and
nitrogen atoms and molecules, causing them to

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excite and emit photons, giving off
a glow and producing colorful curtain like displays

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known as the Northern and Southern lights, the Aurora borealis and Aurora straalus.

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The colours being emitted depend on the
particles being ionized. Reddish brown glows are

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caused by the collision of particles with
single oxygen atoms in the Earth's upper atmosphere,

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usually above three hundred kilometers lower down
a green hue created by single oxygen

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atoms. Down to altitudes of around
one hundred kilometers, the kaleidoscope turns a

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whitish, shallow beige when nitrogen is
mixed in with the oxygen. Aurora can

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also exhibit a blue, red,
or even purple glow in the lower atmosphere,

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caused by the excitation of molecular nitrogen
below one hundred kilometers. However,

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as well as these spectacular aurora light
shows, these highly charged particles can also

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damage or even destroy spacecraft by shotting
up their electronics and destroying circuits. They

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also cause the atmosphere to expand and
contract, increasing atmosphere dragon orbiting spacecraft,

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resulting in premature orbital decay and the
need to use up more fuel in order

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to maintain an operational orbit. Worse
still, space whether can increase the level

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of radiation exposure astronauts experience, affecting
their health. On the ground, the

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solar storms can overload power lines,
causing widespread blackouts. Back in nineteen eighty

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nine, one such geomagnetic storm blue
out transformers, causing blackouts across most of

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eastern North America. Space weather also
affects communications and navigation systems, and it

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forces polar airline flights to be rerouted
to lower latitudes, using up more fuel.

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All space weather activity increases and decreases
in line with a solar cycle.

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However, predicting when the peak of
the solar cycle is going to occur,

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time known as solar maximum or solar
max for short, remains challenging. The

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solar cycles produced by a dynamo mechanism
driven by energy from plasma flows deep inside

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the Sun. This dynamo mechanisms understood
to involve two primary components of the Sun's

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magnetic field, one of which manifests
in the cycle of sunspots, and the

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other which manifests in the cycling of
large scale dipole fields in the Sun.

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The latter is much like the Earth's
magnetic field, stretching from one pole of

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the Sun to the other. As
with the cycle of sunspots, the Sun's

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dipole field is also observed to wax
and wane in strength, and this also

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happens over an eleven year cycle.
Back in nineteen thirty five, Swiss astronomer

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Max Voltmeyer discovered that the faster the
rate of rise of a sunspot cycle,

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the stronger its strength, so stronger
cycles take less time to rise to their

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peak intensity. This relationships often been
utilized to forecast the strength of a sunspot's

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cycle based on observations of its early
rising phase. The new study, reported

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in the Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society claim scientists to find a new

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relationship which shows that a decrease in
the rate of the Sun's dipole magnetic field

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is also related to the rate of
rise in the ongoing sunspots cycle. This

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new discovery, utilizing decades old data
from archives of mudible ground based solar observatories

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around the world, complements to Voltmeyer
effect, connecting the two primary magnetic field

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components of the Sun and supporting the
theory that the evolution of sunspots are integral

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to the functioning of the solar dynamic
process, rather than nearly being a symptom

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of it. The authors believe they've
now demonstrated how observations the rate of the

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decrease in the Sun's dipole magnetic field
can be usefully combined with sunspot observations to

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predict when the ongoing cycle is likely
to peak, and their analysis suggests that

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solar max for cycle twenty five is
most likely to occur early next year,

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with an uncertainty in the estimate ranging
as late as September twenty twenty four.

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Needless to say, we'll keep you
informed. This space time still to come.

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NASA's Fermi Space Telescope net's three hundred
gamma ray pulses in counting, and

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we look back in history at a
day which changed astronomy forever. All that

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are more still to come on space
time. A new catalog shows that NASA's

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Fermi Gammaray Space Telescope has now discovered
two hundred and ninety four gamma ray meeting

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pulsars, with another thirty four suspects
still awaiting confirmation. The findings, reported

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in the Astrophysical Journal, represents a
twenty sevenfold increase compared to the number nine

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before the missions launched back in two
thousand and eight. PULSA has touched on

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a wide range of astrophysical research projects, from cosmic rays and stellar revolution to

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the search for gravitational waves and dark
matter. The studies, coordinated David Smith

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from the Bordeau Astrophysics Laboratory in France, says the new catalog compiles full information

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on all known gamma ray pulsars in
an effort to promote new avenues of exploration.

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Pulsars are rapidly spinning Neutron stars the
Sun size leftovers of massive stars between

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eight and twenty times the mass of
our Sun, which have run out of

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nuclear fuel and exploded a supernovae.
Neutron stars contain more mass than our Sun,

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but compact it into a ball less
than twenty kilometres cross put. Simply,

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they represent the densest known matter in
the universe other than black holes.

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They possess strong magnetic fields, produce
streams of energetic particles, and can spin

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rapidly, the fastest at more than
seven hundred and sixteen times per second.

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Pulsars emit narrow beams of energy that
sweep across the universe as they rotate like

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a lighthouse speaking, and when one
of these beams happened to sweep past the

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Earth, astronomers can detect a pulse
of emission. The new catalog represents the

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work of one hundred and seventy scientists
across the planet. A dozen radio telescopes

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carried out regular monitoring of thousands of
pulsars and radio astronomers search for new pulsars

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within gamma ray sources discovered by FERMI. Other astronomers manage to tease out gamma

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ray pulsars that have no radio counterpart
through millions of laborious hours of computer calculations,

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a process called blind search. Of
the three thousand, four hundred pulsars

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now known, most of them are
observed through their radio waves and located within

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our Milky Way galaxy, but about
ten percent also pulsing gamma rays, the

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highest energy form of light. Visible
lights energies ranging from two to three electron

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vaults fermi's Large Area Telescope and detect
gamma rays with billions of times that amount

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of energy, and other facilities have
observed emissions thousands of times greater still from

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the nearby Villa pulsar, the brightest
persistent source of gamma rays in the sky.

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The Villa pulsa and its famous sibling, the Crab Nebula a young solitary

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objects formed at eleven thousand, nine
hundred and seventy years ago, respectively.

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Their emissions arise as their magnetic fields
spin through space, but this also gradually

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slows down their rotation. The younger
crab pulses currently spinning it around thirty times

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per second, or the villa pulsa
clocks in about a third is fast.

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Paradoxically, though, some pulses that
are a thousand times older still spin much

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faster. One example of these so
called millisecond pulsars is Jay eighteen twenty four

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minus twenty four to fifty two a. It swalls around at some three hundred

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and twenty eight times per second,
and with an age of about thirty million

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years, it ranks among the youngest
of the known millisecond pulsars. Thanks to

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a great combination of gamma ray brightness
and smooth spin down, the millisecond pulsa

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J twelve thirty one minus fourteen eleven
has become known as an ideal timer used

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for gravitational wave searches. By monitoring
a collection of stable millisecond pulsars, astronomers

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hope to link timing changes to passing
low frequency gravitational waves ripples in space time

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a capy detected by current gravitational wave
observatories. It was discovered in one of

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the first radio searchers targeting fermi gamma
ray sources not associated with any no counterpart

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at other wavelengths a technique that's turned
out to be exceptionally successful. Before Fermi

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scientists didn't know if mereisecond pulsars could
be visible at high energies, but it

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turns out most of them can,
most of them do radiating gamma rays,

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and they now make up half of
the catalog. The presence of millisecond pulsars

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in binary systems offers astronomers the clue
to understanding the aid spin paradox. Now

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left to itself, a puls us
emissions will slow down as it ages,

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and as the spin slows, their
emissions also dim But if closely paired with

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a normal star, the pulsar can
literally pull a stream of matter off its

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companion that over time and causes it
to spin up again. In other words,

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it'll start spinning faster. So called
spider systems offer a glimpse of what

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happens next. They're classified as red
backs and black widows, aimed after spiders,

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which are known for consuming their mates. Black widows have lightweight companions,

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usually less than about five percent the
mass of the sun, while redbacks tend

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to have heavier partners. As the
pulsar spins up, its emissions and particle

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outflows becomes so invigorated that process still
fully understood, it heats up and slowly

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evaporates its companion. The most energetic
spiders may fully evaporate their partners, leaving

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only an isolated millisecond pulsar behind.
An analysis of twelve years of Fermi data

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reveals long term spin variations much larger
than those seen in other millisecond pulsars.

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Another pulsa, J fifteen to fifty
five minus twenty nine eight is a black

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widow pulsa with a surprise. It's
gravitytional web may have snared a passing planet.

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Astronomers think a model of developed which
incorporates the planet as a third body

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in a wide orbit around the pulsar
and its companion star, probably describes the

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changes they're seeing a little bit better
than any other possible explanation, but they

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admit they still need a few more
years of firm the observations in order to

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confirm it. Other curious binaries include
so called transitional pulsars such as J ten

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twenty three plus double zero thirty eight. An erratic stream of gas flowing from

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the companion to the neutron star can
surge, suddenly, forming a disc around

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the pulsa, which can persist for
years. The disc shines brightly in optical

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light, X rays and gamma rays, but its pulses become undetectable. Then,

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when the disc vanishes, so is
the high energy light, but the

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pulses return and again. Some pulsars
don't require a partner to speed things up.

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Good example of this is J twenty
twenty one plus forty twenty six.

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It's a young, isolated pulsa located
four thousand, nine hundred light years away.

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It underwent a puzzling mode change in
twenty eleven, dimming its gamma rays

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over a period of just a week, and then years later slowly returning to

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its original brightness. No one's quite
sure why. Similar behavior had already been

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seen in other radio pulsars, but
this is the first time it was seen

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in gamma ray pulsar. Astronomers suspect
the event may have been triggered by crustal

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cracks that temporarily changed to pulsar's magnetic
field further afield. Back in twenty fifteen,

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Fermi discovered the first gamma ray pulsa
in another galaxy, the neighboring large

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Magellanic Cloud, and in twenty twenty
one, astronomers announced the discovery of a

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giant gamma ray flare from a different
type of neutron star called a magnetar,

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located in the Sculptor Galaxy, about
eleven point four million light years away,

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so more than fifteen years after its
launch. NASA's Fermi space Tulskirt remains an

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incredible discovery machine. This space time
still come. We look at a day

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which changed astronomical history, and later
in the Science report, a new study

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warns that ozone levels above Antarctica may
not be recovering after all. All that

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and more still to come on space
time. Back on the seventeenth of August

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twenty seventeen, astronomers were for the
first time ever able to measure the violent

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death spiral of a pair of neutron
stars using both conventional electromagnetic telescopes and the

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relatively new field of gravitational wave laser
into ferometry. The historic event, together

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with a subsequent gamma ray bursted produced, is considered a major landmark of astrophysical

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discovery, confirming once and for all
that neutron stars can create stellar mass black

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holes when they collapse. The collision
involved two non spinning neutron stars, five

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hundred and twenty eight and two hundred
and twenty two solar masses in NNGC forty

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nine ninety three, an elliptical galaxy
one hundred and forty million light years away

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in the constellation Hydra. The merger
and the resultant fireball were witnessed across the

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electromagnetic spectrum, but the real star
of the observational program was its initial detection

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in gravitational waves by the Lego Virgo
collaboration. One of the studies authors,

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Professor Matthew Bales from OSGRAV, the
AIIC Center of Excellence for gravitational wave discovery,

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says it was the first time that
any cosmic event was observed both through

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the light it emitted and the gravitational
ripples that caused in the fabric of space

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time. Just one point seven seconds
after the gravitational waves were detected, a

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sudden burst of gamma rays hit the
Earth, generated by a short duration gamma

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ray burst or killinova, produced by
the merger, and then a visible light

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flash of the event reached Earth eleven
hours later. The subsequent avalanche of scientific

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data was virtually unparalleled in modern astrophysics. Scientists had already hypothesized that colliding neutron

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stars were the forgers that created most
of the gold and other heavy elements in

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the universe, but actually witnessing the
event provided a scientific gold rush. The

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collision, cataloged in gravitational waves as
GW seventeen zero eight seventeen and in gamma

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rays as GiB seventeen eight seventeen a, has gone down in history as the

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dawn of a new era of gravitational
wave multi messenger astronomy. The event reported

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in the journal Science, at hundreds
of astronomers around the world scrambling for their

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telescopes. In Australia, the osgrav
team were literally woken up by the news

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and soon had their sky mapp At
telescope pointing eastwards as the Earth rotated into

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view. Astronomers at the University of
Western Australia used the Zago telescope to gain

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crucial information about the brightness and wavelengths
of the gamma ray burst and its afterglow.

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Ul Scientists with CASTRO the University of
Sydney used the CSIRO's Australia Telescope Compact

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Array at Narrabri and Rural New South
Wales to be the first in the world

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to confirm the radio emissions coming from
the event. One of the other important

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things to come out of this merger
was that it demonstrated that the speed of

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gravitational waves was the same as light
that just a few parts in ten thousand

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trillion in the process, verifying a
central prediction of Albert Einstein dating back more

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than a century to nineteen fifteen.
And it doesn't end there. In October

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twenty eighteen, scientists studying the event
presented a new way to use the information

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they gained from gravitational wave events,
especially those involving the merger of neutron stars,

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to determine the Hubble constant, which
is essential for establishing the expansion rate

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of the universe. The two earlier
methods of finding the Hubble constant, one

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based on redshifts and the other based
on the cosmic distance ladder, have yielded

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different values, which may one day
be reconciled by a new type of standard

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candle. Baiales says well, the
twenty seventeen event was an historic first.

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Future similar events will tell scientists even
more about these tumultuous collisions. Amazing.

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This is what would be way for
credibles. Is why Ligo was built.

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And there it was. On the
seventeenth of August twenty seventeen. Two neutron

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stars, each half a million times
the mass of the Earth only ten kilometers

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in radius, tore each other apart, and they sent out this burst of

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gravitational waves that whacked into the Ligo
detector. Then nothing, but only for

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one point seven seconds. It was
a company by a burst of Gava rays

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that flushed past the Earth. The
Gama rays proved that where neutron stars moved,

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we get a Gavaray burst. Nobody
was really sure exactly what a gamray

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burst was. We now know that
cam neutrons fifty year old. His street

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solved in two seconds. The other
thing had told us was that the speed

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of gravitation white waves or gravity for
mine, was the same as the speed

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of light. There's just four parts
in ten thousand, and that's an amazing

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stat The two neutron stars sent ours
to a fireball, and that enabled us

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to determine which galaxy it came from. And virtually every telescope on the planet

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was looking at this thing. And
I think we'd love to know what happens

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when a very heavy neutron starts.
A lightmark or a black hole means a

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neutron star. So I think there's
a lot of secrets out there still waiting

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to happen. And to the memory
of Sunny Time, let's professor Matthew Bales

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from osgrav the AC Center of Excellence
for Gravitational Wave Discovery, and this space

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Time Time that to take a brief
look at some of the other stories making

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news in science this week with a
science report. A new study warns that

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ozone levels above Antarctica may not be
recovering after all, and changes in the

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Southern Hemisphere's atmosphere may be contributing to
the persistence of the ozone hole. The

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ozone hole over Antarctica usually emerges around
August and stays open until the end of

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November, but it's always been thought
that total ozone levels were slowly recovering following

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ozone depletion substances being banned. However, a new study reported in the journal

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Nature Communications has now found that over
the last twenty years there's actually been a

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twenty six percent reduction in the core
of the ozone hole over Antarctica. During

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the middle of this period, usually
around October. The research also found that

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when they added the most recent satellite
data into the observations, the trend towards

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recovery of total ozone disappeared. The
research has found that these changes may be

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driven by alterations in the atmospheric layer
directly above the ozone layer and you study

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warns that inhaling unfiltered air pollution while
sitting in traffic is associated with a four

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point five millimeter increase in your blood
pressure. The findings reported in the Annals

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of Internal Medicine are based on a
study which saw sixteen people aged twenty two

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to forty five driven through traffic in
a busy US city for three days,

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either using a real filter to clean
the air in the car or a fake

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one that allowed unfiltered air through.
By monitoring their blood pressure before, during,

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after each drive, researchers found that
drives in unfiltered vehicles associated with increases

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in blood pressure compared to drives with
the filter, and that suggests that are

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health risks associated with sitting in traffic, but they can be mitigated with effective

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air filtration. The biological words abuzz
with news flying about that city, dwelling

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bees tend to have bigger brains than
their country cousins. The findings, reported

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in the journal Biology Letters, is
based on a study which measured the brain

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and body size of three hundred and
thirty five bees from eighty nine species,

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finding that bees who hang around urban
environments tend to have bigger brains relative to

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their body size compared to their country
bumpkin counterparts. The authors say it's the

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first evidence of the so called cognitive
buffer theory in insects, which suggests that

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larger brains allow animals to adapt their
behavior better to a changing environment. Television

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00:23:25.000 --> 00:23:29.440
reporter Ross Coulthard has won the Australian
Skeptics twenty twenty three Bentz Spoon Award.

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Coulthard was given the award for his
ongoing investigations into unidentified flying objects and alien

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life forms from other planets. A
highly covered at trophy is the highlight of

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the annual Skepticon conference, which this
year was held in Melbourne. The award

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is presented annually to the individual or
organization Australian Skeptics believed to be the perpetrator

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of the most preposterous piece of paranormal
pseudo scientific pefol Past winners have included the

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Australian Broadcasting Corporation for its lack of
journalistic integrity, so an Across University for

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00:24:00.400 --> 00:24:06.599
offering a degree course in naturopathy,
the csro's chief Larry Marshall for his support

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00:24:06.640 --> 00:24:10.759
of water divining, and the University
of Wollongong for proving that you don't need

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00:24:10.799 --> 00:24:15.839
to be especially bright or scientifically accurate
to be awarded a doctorate. Of course,

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00:24:15.920 --> 00:24:19.400
Courtard is a former Maudiple Walkley's winner, the Walkleys themselves having lost a

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00:24:19.400 --> 00:24:23.799
lot of credibility, with one of
the hosts described as a hardened Palestinian activist

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00:24:25.000 --> 00:24:27.759
and at least one past winner being
given the award for her reporting is fact

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00:24:27.759 --> 00:24:33.400
they now discredited still doss yet Russian
collusion story. If she was a real

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investigative reporter, she would have worked
it out for herself to mend them from

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strands skeptics, as many journalistic colleagues
were surprised when they found out as this

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00:24:41.400 --> 00:24:45.799
is Ben Spoon when it was We've
been giving out the bens Through award now

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00:24:45.839 --> 00:24:48.640
for forty years and it's always it
was the highlight of what people look forward

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00:24:48.680 --> 00:24:52.839
to. Covers a wide variety of
candidates and nominations, but this time was

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00:24:52.880 --> 00:24:59.680
particularly interesting. We had some nominations
from a government senators notorious for being shall

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we say, the pompous about climate
change and his prognostications, trying to trip

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00:25:03.440 --> 00:25:06.559
people up. We've got a natural
Path of Australian natural path who's been banded

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00:25:06.599 --> 00:25:10.519
in Australia but is active overseas.
And we've had the Special Broadcasting Service which

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00:25:10.559 --> 00:25:14.799
has had an interesting program about allowing
you Regala to talk about how wonderful Yury

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00:25:14.839 --> 00:25:17.400
Galer is. But none of those
one souse. The person who actually won

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00:25:17.440 --> 00:25:22.400
the award was a Walkley Award journalism
winner who's now added another prize to his

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00:25:22.519 --> 00:25:25.519
list of Ben Spoon Award, and
that was Ross Coultart is a well known

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00:25:25.559 --> 00:25:30.759
Australian journalist. He won because of
he's changed in a way from his investigative

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00:25:30.799 --> 00:25:34.759
journalism. He's still using that description, but he's then investigating UFOs and unfortunately

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00:25:36.079 --> 00:25:40.880
as an investigative journalism, he's now
purely relying on third party claims which he

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00:25:40.960 --> 00:25:45.319
believes totally no evidence. He keeps
talking about, obviously the recent claims about

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00:25:45.400 --> 00:25:48.839
UFOs and things technology that's available,
machines that are crashed and being taken apart

305
00:25:48.880 --> 00:25:52.079
by various government bodies of aliens,
all that sort of stuff. He believes

306
00:25:52.079 --> 00:25:56.359
they exist, he's never seen them. The people he's spoken to largely haven't

307
00:25:56.480 --> 00:25:59.079
well, haven't seen them, and
admit as much. But he will.

308
00:25:59.160 --> 00:26:03.400
He's outputting for without this supposed evidence
that's out there in favor of aliens,

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00:26:03.440 --> 00:26:07.319
and unfortunately it just doesn't stack up. So as an investigative journalist, seems

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00:26:07.319 --> 00:26:10.200
to me he swept aside down.
What does it say about the standard of

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00:26:10.319 --> 00:26:12.920
journalism in Australia, especially as there's
a lot of criticism about the walkleays of

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00:26:14.000 --> 00:26:17.279
late That's right, Yeah, the
Walkers haven't been without their own controversy and

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00:26:17.480 --> 00:26:21.599
it's happened in the past too large. Sort of follows the same pattern,

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00:26:21.640 --> 00:26:23.599
doesn't it. It does to a
certder standard. It depends on the individual.

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00:26:23.720 --> 00:26:27.599
Sometimes they're their standards slips somewhat.
Sometimes the standards slip a lot.

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00:26:27.960 --> 00:26:33.720
Has been any reaction from mister Kiltard, not so far. Let me just

317
00:26:33.759 --> 00:26:37.400
make one point actually about Coiltard and
his investigative journalism sort of journalists mostly based

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00:26:37.440 --> 00:26:41.759
on evidence, right, and he
complains that people keep asking where's the evidence,

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00:26:41.759 --> 00:26:45.000
where's the evidence? And his response
is I don't give a what they

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00:26:45.119 --> 00:26:48.359
say, And that is pretty telling. One of the problems with kild Out

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00:26:48.359 --> 00:26:52.599
being investigated journalists is that several times
he's rejected the need for evidence to support

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00:26:52.640 --> 00:26:56.160
his claim. He complains about people
saying the bleeding debunkers. He says,

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00:26:56.200 --> 00:26:59.160
to keep asking where's the evidence,
where's the evidence? And they don't think

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00:26:59.200 --> 00:27:02.960
be interested in evidence at all.
He just rejects any criticism and just goes

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00:27:02.960 --> 00:27:04.599
straight forward. Never let the facts
get in the way of a good story.

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00:27:06.519 --> 00:27:07.880
Yeah, and it's going to be
interesting. Think he really believes his

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00:27:07.960 --> 00:27:11.240
stuff. Oh, I'm sure he
does. I'm give him the feeling that

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00:27:11.279 --> 00:27:14.079
he really does believe that. Getting
no evidence, he says he doesn't need

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00:27:14.079 --> 00:27:15.880
to. I trust the people who
tell me. Thinks trust his sources.

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00:27:15.960 --> 00:27:37.039
Yeah. That's timendum from Australian Skeptics
And that's the show for now. Space

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00:27:37.039 --> 00:27:41.640
Time is available every Monday, Wednesday
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Gary. This has been another quality
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