S27E11: Mars could have had flowing water for hundreds of millions of years

WEBVTT

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This is Spacetime Series twenty seven,
Episode eleven, for broadcast on the twenty

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fourth of January twenty twenty four.
Coming up on Spacetime, claims Mars could

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have had flowing water for hundreds of
millions of years. New web space telescope

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data shows that early galaxies looked a
lot more like pool noodles and surfboards.

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And NASA's new mission to capture Star
staff. All that and more coming up

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on Spacetime Welcome to Space Time with
Stuart Gary. A new study based on

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Martian Impact crater erosion rates suggest water
may have flowed across the surface of the

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Red planet for hundreds of millions of
years. The findings, reported in the

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journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
looked at the maximum time scales for the

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formation of Martian river valley networks shaped
by flowing water. The studies le ad

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author Alexander Morgan from the Planetary Science
Institute, says that while the Red planet

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is a global freeze dried desert today, its surface preserves extensive evidence of past

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flowing water, including what appears to
be river valleys, and the time scales

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over which these river valleys formed could
have big implications for early Mars habitability.

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That's because long periods would stable liquid
water would be more conducive for the formation

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of life. The red planet's river
valley networks for more than three billion years

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ago and have long been considered among
the strongest pieces of evidence for liquid water

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on early Mars. Previous researchers already
showed they would have taken a minimum of

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tens of thousands of years to erode
these river valleys, but the frequency of

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flow events and consequently the total matter
time over which the river valleys formed,

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has never been constrained, and that's
where this new work comes in. Morgan

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and colleagues use craters that both predate
and post state the river valley system in

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order to place the maximum bounds of
hundreds of millions of years on the era

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over which these systems formed. Now, given what scientists already know about erosion

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rates on early Mars, longer time
scales implies that the conditions permitting rivers to

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flow would have been highly intermittent,
with long arid periods interspersed with brief periods

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of fluval activity. Morgan says scientists
studying early Mars have historically tended to fall

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in one of two camps. Early
Mars was either a warm, wet world

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with oceans, or it was a
cold, frozen place with massive ice sheets.

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Over the past decade or so,
scientists have come to realize that these

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descriptions are far too general, and
it doesn't really make any sense to try

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and condense hundreds of millions of years
of planetary climate history into just a two

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or three word description. You see, like the early Earth, early Mars

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was a more complex place, and
the conditions permitting surface water on Mars would

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have also varied considerably. Morgan points
out that Earth has undergone massive climatic changes

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throughout its history. For example,
twenty thousand years ago, the area what

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is now Chicago was beneath half a
mile of ice, and in the same

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way, climatic surface conditions permitting rivers
to flow on early Mars likewise, would

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have probably waxed and waned. So
looking at the overall results, it suggests

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that Martian rivers were eroding at very
slow rates, similar to parts of the

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Attakami High Desert in Chile today.
One explanation for this is that erosion might

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have been inhibited by the accumulation of
large boulders on the river bed, which

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could not be further broken down.
Another possibility, however, is that rivers

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were simply flowing very infrequently, maybe
as little as once in one hundred years,

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and that would imply that rivers on
Mars were generally dry, could become

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active when something like say volcanic activity
or variations in the planet's axial tilt and

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it's orbit around the Sun, warmed
the Martian's surface more than normal. These

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long term climatic changes are not unusual
because they also happen here on Earth.

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Earth's axial tilt often changes, as
does its orbit around the Sun. We

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call these Melancovitch cycles, and they're
responsible for many of Earth's glacial periods.

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Morgan says that over short time scales, river flows are controlled by rainfall or

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upstream snow melt, but when looking
over longer time scales, it's clear that

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Earth's rivers are affected by climatic changes. For example, twenty thousand years ago,

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there were large lakes and rivers flowing
across Wood is now Nevada, and

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Martian rivers could have operated in much
the same way, with short term viability

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due to storms and snow melt,
long term viability due to changes in the

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planet's spin or it's orbit around the
Sun. This space time still to come.

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New web telescope data shows that early
galaxies looked a lot more like pearl

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noodles and surfboards than the frisbees and
volleyballs they commonly look like today, And

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we take a close look at NASA's
new mission to capture Star Staff. All

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that and more still to come on
space time. New images from NASA's web

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Space Telescope shows that early galaxies at
the dawn of time are often flat and

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elongated, looking a lot more like
surfboards and pearl noodles than the frisbees and

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volleyball shaped galaxies we see around us
today. The findings reported in the Astrophysical

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Journal suggest that today's more common spherical
shaped elliptical galaxies disc shaped spiral galaxies were

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very uncommon in the early universe.
The studies, based on observations using Webb's

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Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science Survey.
Astronomers focused on galaxies estimated to have existed

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when the universe was between six hundred
million and six billion years old. The

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studies lead Auto Varaj Pandea from Columbia
University says roughly fifty to eighty percent of

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galaxies studied appear to be flattened in
two dimensions. Galaxies that look like pearl

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noodles or surfboards seem to be very
common in the early universe, which is

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surprising considering they're very uncommon today.
But while most of the distant galaxies looked

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like surfboards and pearl noodles, there
were some which were shaped like frisbees and

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volleyballs. The volleyball or elliptical shaped
galaxies appear the most compact type and the

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cosmic ocean early times, but were
also the least frequently identified. On the

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other hand, the frisbee or spiral
shaped galaxies, while still rare, were

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found to be at least as large
as the surfboard and pull noodle shaped galaxies,

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but became more common as the universe
aged and the observations raised an interesting

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question. See our milky Way is
about twelve billion years old, so when

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it started to form, it would
have formed right at the time when there

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were lots of pill noodles and surfboards. So what would our spiral milky Way

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galaxy have looked like back then?
Well, according to the authors, their

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best guess is that it probably would
have looked something like a surfboard. This

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hypothesis is based partly on new evidence
from web theorists have wound back the clock

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to estimate the Milky Ways mass billions
of years ago, which would correlate to

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the shape it hat at that time. See, these distant galaxies are all

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far less massive than nearby spirals and
elliptical galaxies which we see today. That's

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because in the early universe, galaxies
had far less time to grow. The

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authors say, the question now is
to determine how galaxies reached their shape through

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their process of merger and evolution.
This is space time still to come new

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mission to capture star stuff, and
later in the science report, paleontologists discover

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a new species of tyrannosaur that's the
closest relative yet of the famous Tyrannosaurus rex.

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All that and more still to come
on space time. Okay, let's

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take a break from our show for
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it's back to our show. You're listening

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to Space Time and Space Time with
Stewart Gary. Scientists are working on a

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new instrument to capture stardust from interstellar
space. The instrument, called the Interstellar

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Dust Experiment or IDEX, will be
a key component of NASA's new Interstellar Mapping

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and Acceleration Probe IMAP, which will
launch in just over a year from now.

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The IMAP spacecraft will travel to a
gravitational will between the Earth and the

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Sun known as the Lagrangian L one
position. It's located about one hundred and

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sixty million kilometers from Earth and is
a point in space where the gravitational forces

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of the Sun and Earth tend to
cancel each other, thereby allowing a spacecraft

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to remain in orbit at this position
with very little expenditure of fuel. From

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its perch at L one, IMAPP
will spend two years collecting and analyzing the

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composition of literally hundreds of thousands of
microscopic dust particles floating past now. A

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lot of these will be particles in
the solar wind streaming out from the Sun,

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as well as from passing comets and
asteroids, and the zodiacolte, which

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a particle was blurn into space by
massive dust storms on the red planet Mars.

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But also included in the catch will
be grains from interstellar space particles flowing

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into our Solar System from the vast
expanses between the stars and the Milky Way

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galaxy. These will include dust particles
from other star systems and the remains of

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exploded stars called supernovae. Supernovae are
important because it's thought one supernova explosion not

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too far from where we are now
probably triggered the collapse of a molecular gas

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and dust cloud which wound up forming
our son in Solar System four point six

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billion years ago. But interstellar dust
grains are spread so thin the instrument will

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probably only collect a few hundred of
them during its lifetime, and so each

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and every small speck of interstellar dust
will be a treasure trave of information.

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Of course, most of them will
have been altered as they travel through interstellar

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space, but they'll still be the
closest material we have for understanding the original

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building blocks of our solar system.
So far, astronomers have only ever captured

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just a few dozen grains of interstellar
dust, and that will make each new

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find by IDEX precious. Detecting and
analyzing them in space will open up new

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windows into the universe. Built over
the past six years by a team at

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the University of Colorado, Boulder,
IDEX will be one of ten scientific packages

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aboard the IMAP spacecraft IMAPS being assembled
at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory

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in Maryland. The IDEX instrument looks
a lot like a large drum. It

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features a fifty centimeter white aperture at
one end designed to capture dust zooming buy

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It's sort of like a baileing whale
feeding. IDEX will record how fast these

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particles are moving, what they're made
of, and the direction from which they're

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coming. And this isn't the team's
first project. They previously designed and build

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a similar instrument called the Surface Dust
Analyzer a SCOOTER, which is part of

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NASA's Europa Clipper mission, which is
slated to launch to the Jovian Moon later

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this year, and they built an
earlier version which was mounted aboard NASA's New

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Horizons mission spacecraft to Pluto. It's
now exploring the dark outer reaches of the

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Solar System. IIDEX project manager Scott
Tucker says trapping dust in space is no

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easy feet that's because interstellar dust particles
are very rare. His team's made the

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instrument roughly two and a half times
bigger than scooter because the bigger the mouth,

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the more particles you can catch.
Each grain of dust will likely be

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rich in elements like silicon and carbon, and may I only measure a few

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millions of a centimeter across, making
things more difficult. Some will be traveling

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at speeds of will over one hundred
thousand kilometers per hour, and as these

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grains crashed into the back of IDEX, they'll instantly vaporize in a cloud of

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ions, which the instrument will then
collect and analyze. Tucker says the main

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challenge with IDx is being what engineers
referred to as dynamic range. See the

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instrument needs to capture both really fast
and large particles as well as smaller,

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slower moving ones and then measure them
all using the same instrument. This report

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from the University of Colorado, Boulder. Interstellar dust from outside our solar system

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enter our solar system and we don't
know a lot about its composition, mass,

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and speed, and so IDEX throughout
its orbit will be able to answer

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some questions that kind of remain unanswered
from past missions. IDEX, first of

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all, is an instrument. One
of the instruments on the IMAP mission.

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IMAPP is going to fly to a
location called one, which is Lagarage point

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one, which is about one percent
of the way from the Earth to the

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Sun, and it's gonna sit there
HIGHDEX is gonna look off into space,

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and it's gonna measure interstellar dust particles
that arrive at that point in space.

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This is a way for us to
learn more, not just about our solar

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system, but a way for us
to learn about extrasolar systems, and instead

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of just looking at the light that
those systems produce, we can actually get

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the material that is coming into our
solar system. And so we have this

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chance an opportunity to learn more,
not just from our traditional light model,

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but from a chemical standpoint, what
some of those building blocks of other planets

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and systems might be. Like the
interstellar dust, it's not quite as affected

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by the Sun and it doesn't collide
with other dust quite as often, so

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it's the same way that it was
millions of years ago. So by looking

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at these dust particles, we can
get some information about what our solar system

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was like many years ago. And
in that report from the University of Colorado,

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Boulder, we heard from IDEX Project
Manager Scott Tucker, IDEX instrument in

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Jeanie Christina Davis, and IDEX Research
assistant Ethan I Yari this space time and

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time that to take another brief look
at some of the other stories making us

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in science this week. With a
science report, the World Meteorological Organization has

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confirmed that twenty twenty three was the
hottest gee globally since records began. Following

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their original declaration back in November last
year, the organization has consolidated data from

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six leading global weather monitoring data sets, concluding the average annual global temperature for

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twenty twenty three was one point four
five five degrees plus or minus zero point

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one two degrees celsius above pre industrial
levels. Considering the shift from l Ninia

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to El Nino conditions in late twenty
twenty three and the continuing presence of El

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Ninia today, the Ward Meteorological Organization
says it's now possible that twenty twenty three

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record could be broken. In twenty
twenty four, researchers have taken the first

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critical step in creating a successful HIV
vaccine. A report in the journal's Cell

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claims researchers activated specific immune cells that
induce broadly neutralizing antibodies. The study confirms

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that these antibodies are at the structural
and genetic levels similar to human antibodies needed

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as the foundation for a protective HIV
vaccine. The authors had previously isolated naturally

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occurring broadly neutralizing antibodies from an individual
and then backtrack them through all the changes

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the antibody and the virus underwent to
reach a point of origin for the native

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antibody and its binding site on the
HIV envelope. This allowed the authors to

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engineer a molecule that elicits antibodies that
mimic the native antibody and its binding site

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on the HIV envelope. The human
immune deficiency virus HIV is an infection that

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attacks the body's immune system, causing
acquired immuno deficiency syndrome or AIDS. It's

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thought of originated from infected primates in
western Central Africa and was first identified in

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humans in May nineteen eighty one.
HIV targets the body's white blood cells,

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specifically helper T cells. It also
attacks macrophasas and dendritic cells, weakening them

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and causing a progressive featherure of the
immune system. This allows a wide range

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of so called opportunistic diseases, such
as tuberculosis and several types of cancer to

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become critical, eventually killing the patient. The World Health Organization estimates at least

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fifty two million people have been killed
by AIDS, with another forty million currently

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living with HIV. Palaeontologists of uncovered
a new species of a tyrannosaur that may

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be the closest known relative to Tyrannosaurus
rex. The new therapere dinosaur, named

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Tyrannosaurus macronesis, was found at the
Whole Lake Formation in New Mexico. The

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findings, published in the journal Scientific
Reports, are based on a fossilized durw

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and partial skull originally thought to belong
to a t Rex. However, numerous

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subtle differences in the shape of enjoins
between the skull bones eventually led the authors

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that determine it belonged to a new
and different species. The dur of Macaranesis

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is far more slender than the more
robust, lowered you're seen on t Rex.

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The other main difference lies in the
prominent ridge or post orbital bone,

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that's the bone around the eye that
might have something to do with how the

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species attracted a mate. The new
tyrannosaur is thought to have lived between seventy

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one and seventy three million years ago, that's between five and seven million years

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before t Rex. Samsung have just
released their new Galaxy S twenty four lineup,

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and it's full of new features which
will force Apple and Google to up

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their game. The new Galaxy smartphone
includes a range of AI capabilities, including

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photo editing using the new Snap drag
and eight generation three chip set for improved

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graphics and AI features. With all
the details, we're joined by technology editor

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alex'harov Freud from Tech Advice, Start
Life This is Samsung's attempt to make AI

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effortless. You know, the creativity
that it can offer for in users via

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text messages, a thing called Circle
to search cameras, a new five times

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00:20:36.640 --> 00:20:40.440
optical zoom camera with a thing called
nitography WHI which it takes excellent low light

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photos and videos with a sixty percent
larger pixel size for the camera center and

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the new stronger optical image stabilizer so
that when you are taking these long shots

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with the zoom they are as sharp
and as clear as possible. And you

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also don't have a thing called a
flat screen, so it's much easier to

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apply it spreen protectors and also better
for writing on. The S twenty four

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Ultra has a titanium frame, so
matching the iPhone. The S twenty four

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and S twenty four plus have aluminium
frames, and they also have the Qualcom

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snap Dragon eight Gen three chip,
the one that supercharged with AI smarts.

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But of course there's a special Galaxy
addition and that allows you to do things

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like translate live in one of thirteen
different languages whilst you're having a phone call.

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So when you're talking to somebody and
you're in English, there in Spanish

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for example. You can choose the
languages. I think it can detective,

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but certainly you can choose the languages
you want. You speak, it translates,

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they speak, it translates and you
can have a conversation. And I

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tried it at CES. There was
an embarigoed session where I gave it a

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go and it actually it works very
cool. Then you got this circle to

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search, so you can tap the
little white line which is the home button

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effectively. Now you know normally you'd
swipe up, but you hold your finger

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on that. Then in any video, any web page, anywhere that you

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are, you can then circle around
something with your finger or the stylust and

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Google search and that this is nothing
can induction with Google. It will search

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just for that, so you can
do a visual search of anything, which

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is extremely cool. You can now
type messages in one language and have them

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appear in another via the same live
translation capability. You can now have HDR

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photos, not just in the main
camera app, but things like Instagram.

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You can also write something in the
note taking app or just anywhere, and

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then the keyboard allows you to change
the tone of what you've written, so

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an informal tone to your friends,
or a formal tone for your boss.

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If you're typing things out or even
handwriting them, the note app can take

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your wonky handwriting and make it nice
and straight. You can take your notes

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and put it into bullet point format
and give it proper headings. If you

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are recording your voice and you've got
multiple people recording a session, it can

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00:22:42.759 --> 00:22:45.880
break the voices up into speaker one, speaker two, speaker three. It

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can transcribe it all for you can
even translate that to a different voice.

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And that's just for free part of
the system. Normally you'd have to pay

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twenty dollars a month to a service
like otter dot Ai. And you know,

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there's just so many cool little features
inside. But this is sad Sung

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00:23:00.440 --> 00:23:03.640
throwing down the gauntlet to Apple,
to Google, everybody to say this is

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00:23:04.039 --> 00:23:08.400
the new standard. And Samsung is
backing it up with seven years not just

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00:23:08.400 --> 00:23:14.240
of security updates but operating system updates. That's to match what Google has promised

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00:23:14.240 --> 00:23:17.039
for his Pixel phones, and also
to outclass Apple where it can, who

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00:23:17.079 --> 00:23:19.079
normally does at least five years.
I think the one thing that Samsung still

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00:23:19.079 --> 00:23:23.079
doesn't have nailed down is the ability
to get the updates out on the same

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00:23:23.200 --> 00:23:29.359
day simultaneously for all of its phones
globally, and that's something that Google can

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00:23:29.400 --> 00:23:32.359
do because it has a much smaller
series of phones. Samsung has a very

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wide clutch of phones. Samsung just
lost the crown for selling the most smartphones

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to Apple in twenty twenty three,
and I'm sure they want to get it

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00:23:40.079 --> 00:23:42.440
back. They've got more competition than
ever, very impressive phone. Google is

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00:23:42.440 --> 00:23:45.960
going to have to do some big
work to match the features with their Google

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00:23:47.000 --> 00:23:49.240
Pixel eight and eight Pro with their
feature drops, and of course Apple is

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00:23:49.440 --> 00:23:52.880
We're expecting great things from Apple at
the Worldwide Developer Conference in the middle of

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00:23:52.920 --> 00:23:56.720
this year with the iowsad team and
all of the AI updates, and also

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00:23:56.759 --> 00:24:00.960
with the iPhone sixteen Pro. So
great news forward smartphone edits. That's Alex

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00:24:00.960 --> 00:24:22.240
Saharov Rout from Tech Advice Start Live
and that's the show for now. Spacetime

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00:24:22.319 --> 00:24:27.400
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