May 30, 2026
Neutrinos and Supernovae Secrets, Neptune's Enigmatic Moon Nereid, and Hypersonic Returns to Earth
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RSS Feed RSS Feed SpaceTime Series 29 Episode 64 *A new explanation for how stars explode A new study suggests that neutrino which are some the least massive objects in the universe may trigger some of the biggest explosions in the cosmos – supernovae the explosive death of massive stars which are so bright they can outshine entire galaxies. *Neptune's mysterious moon Nereid A new study suggests the planet Neptune's distant moon Nereid may be the last of the ice giant’s original satellites which somehow managed to survive a cosmic collision.. *A safe return to Earth for a hypersonic test vehicle Varda Space Industries’ W-6 capsule has safely returned to Earth, parachuting down into the Australian outback. *The Science Report New study claims your eyes could indicate of how strong your bones are. Scientists confirm insects feel pain. Researchers show most Australian Wild Dogs have mostly dingo ancestry. Skeptics guide to bigfoot visits the Marines at Quantico. Our Guests This Week: Dr Finn Stokes from Adelaide University Dr. Kirsty Duffy from Fermilab Dr. Jessica Turner from the University of Durham. And our regular guests: Alex Zaharov-Reutt from techadvice.life Tim Mendham from Australian Skeptics 🌏 Get Our Exclusive NordVPN deal here ➼ www.bitesz.com/nordvpn . The discounts and bonuses are incredible! And it’s risk-free with Nord’s 30-day money-back guarantee! ✌ If you’d like to support the podcast and gain access to bonus content by becoming a SpaceTime crew member, you can do just that through premium versions on Patreon, Spotify and Apple Podcasts. Details on the Support page on our website https://www.bitesz.com/show/spacetime/support/ For more SpaceTime and show links: https://linktr.ee/biteszHQ If you love this podcast, please get someone else to listen to. Thank you…
The Astronomy, Space, Technology & Science News Podcast.
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This is Spacetime Series twenty nine, episode sixty four, for
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broadcast on the twenty ninth of May twenty twenty six.
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Coming up on Space Time, a new explanation for how
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stars explode, Neptune's mysterious moon to Red and a safer
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return to Earth in out back South Australia for a
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hypersonic test vehicle. All that and more coming up on
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space Time.
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Welcome to space Time with Stuart Gary.
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A new study suggest that the new trina, which are
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some of the least massive objects in the universe, may
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trigger some of the biggest explosions in the universe supernovae,
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the explosive death of massive stars, which is so bright
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it can outshine an entire galaxy. Neutrinos are the most
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common form of matter in the universe, but they're so
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small they're ritually billions of them passing through you right
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now without you even noticing it. They're produced by some
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of the most extreme events in the universe, including the
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cause of stars, supernova explosions, and nuclear reactors. Neutrinos come
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in three types known as flavors, electron, muon, and tao,
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and what makes them really weird is that they oscillate
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between these flavors as they move through space, so an
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electron neutrainer produced in say a better decay reaction, may
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interact in a distant detector as a mule or town neutrino.
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The cause of this oscillation between flavors remains poorly understood.
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Now are reporting the journal Physical Review Letters has found
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evidence that a particular rapid form of this oscillation, known
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as fast flavor conversion, may play a key role in
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whether or not a collapsing star explodes as a supernova.
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Stars shine by fusing hydrogen into healium in their cause.
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When the hydrogen runs out and it's all converted into helium,
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the star will then start to fuse helium into heavier elements,
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starting with carbon and oxygen. Now, for most stars, like
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our Sun, that's where the process will end. The star
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will die and become a white dwarf. But for stars
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at least eight times more massive than our Sun, they're
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big enough to continue this process, producing ever heavier and
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heavier elements, so they eventually produce iron in their core.
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But no matter how massive a star is, it can't
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fuse iron into anything heavier, and so the hydrostatic equilibrium
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balancing act between gravity crashing a star downwards towards its
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center and nuclear energy pushing outwards ends and gravity winds
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causing the start to collapse under its own mass, triggering
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a shock wave which then BLUs the star apart in
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a core collapse supernova. While the neutrino is produced during
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this collapsing core the main drivers of this blast, only
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certain flavors will interact strongly enough with surrounding matter to
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heat it up, and as a result, neutrino otsoles and
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plays a key role. If neutrinos which flavors at the
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wrong time, the explosion will fail. So to work out
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exactly what's happening, the authors develop new computer models of
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collapsing stars across a range of masses and incorporated fast
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flavor conversions in order to simulate how neutrinas interact during
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these events. They discovered that the outcome was closely tied
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to how quickly collapsing material was falling inwards onto the core,
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a quantity called the mass secretion rate.
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When the acceleration rates.
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Low, fast flavor conversion boosts the energy deposited by the
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neutrinos and helps drive the explosion now.
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In contrast, when it's high.
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The conversion reduces the overall neutrino output enough to suppress
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the supernova blast. But the importance of the neutrinos doesn't
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end there. Pound for pound, out of all the particles
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with mass, neutrinos the fastest. In fact, at one point
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they were thought to be traveling at the speed of light,
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but because they do have mass, we know that's not
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possible and that's not being confirmed.
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But exactly how fast are they?
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Utrino physicist Kirsty Duffy and Durham University neutrino theorist Jessica
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Turner discussed exactly how fast neutrinis can travel in this
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report from Fermilab.
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Neutrinos are really speedy. These little particles can travel straight
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through the entire Earth in a fraction of the time
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it takes you to blink. Pound for pound. Of all
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the particles with mass, they are the fastest, almost traveling
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at the fastest possible speed in the universe, the speed
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of light, but not quite so. Exactly how fast are they?
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That's tougher to say. You may have heard that light
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from the Sun takes eight minutes to reach Earth when
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you look up at the Sun, you're actually seeing it
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as it was eight minutes ago before all those photons
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traveled one hundred and forty nine point six billion meters
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to reach the Earth. But some weird things happen when
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you travel at the speed of light, and if you're
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a photon, it seems like the journey tape no time
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at all. I've invited Jessica Turner to help explain it.
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Jessica is a neutrino theorist at Durham University.
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Hi Jessica, Hi Kirsty. You're correct. To photon traveling at
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the speed of light, the journey happens instantaneously. We move
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really slowly compared to photons, so our experience of time
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is immensely different from Einstein's theory of special relativity. We
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know that the faster something travels, the more time slows down,
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to the point that for a photon traveling at the
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speed of light, time stops, so photon experiences the entire
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universe's timeline all at once.
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I mean, what think about that for a second. But
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why are we talking about photons when we're supposed to
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be discussing the speed of neutrinos.
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The short answer is, on a practical level, neutrino's travel
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so close to the speed of light you can basically
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just round up.
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That's right. We've tried to measure the speed neutrina's travel
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by measuring how long it takes for them to travel
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long distance. For example, the Minos experiment timed how long
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it took neutrinos to travel seven hundred and thirty five
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kilometers from Fermilab to northern Minnesota. But we don't have
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the resolution even in our most precise experiments, to measure
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the speed of neutrino's being noticeably different from the speed
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of light. I mean, you know to the extent that
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we measure neutrinos at all. Now let's get a bit
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more specific. We can calculate the speed of a neutrino
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from its energy using Einstein's special relativity equations. If we
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know its mass, let's run the numbers for a neutrino
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we'd make at Fermilab's particle accelerators and give it an
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energy of one GV. The other part of the equation
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is harder because we don't actually know the mass of
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the neutrino. We've never been able to measure it, though
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are some experiments that have helped narrow it down, including Catrin.
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Catrin recently showed that the mass of the neutrino has
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to be less than zero point eight evy o a
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c squared. So let's say Katrin is just shy of
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finding the neutrino mass. We'll plug in zero point seven
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ev overseas grid into our equation. That tells us that
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our neutrinos would travel at nort point nine nine nine
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nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine nine
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nine nine nine nine nine five times the speed of light.
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To put that in context, the Andromeda Galaxy is two
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point five million light years away, meaning it takes a
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photon two and a half million years to travel here.
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At least according to US, if a photon and a
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one gv neutrino set off at the same time from
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the Andromeda Galaxy, the neutrino would arrive just zero point
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not four seconds after the photon. That is how close
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to the speed of light they travel. So you can
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see why we have trouble measuring the difference. But then,
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why are we so certain that neutrinos are traveling slower.
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One of the special things we know about neutrinos is
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that they change flavor as they travel. The fact that
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they can change tells us that, unlike photons, neutrinos experience time,
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and that tells us that they aren't quite traveling at
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the speed of light. But if you thought it was
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that easy to calculate the speed of neutrinos, just wait,
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there's more. Let's get into some of the weirdness of
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quantum mechanics. Neutrinos aren't separate. They actually travel as a
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mix of three different mass states mass one, mass two,
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and mass three, and each one has a probability of
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interacting as a different flavor of neutrino, electron, mun or tao.
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This is an example of quantum superposition and it is
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pretty wild stuff. Here's Jessica to explain it.
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So an important thing to remember in this discussion is
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that particles are also waves, and the length of the
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wave is not infinite, so you can think of particles
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as little sections of waves, or as a weave packet.
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When a neutrino was born at an accelerator, it starts
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out as a superposition of all three mass states. This
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means that the wave packets for all three mass states
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are overlapping, and as long as the wave packets are overlapping,
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you have a coherent neutrino. Any one of these mass
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states could be the one to interact in your detector
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and you wouldn't be able to tell the difference. This
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leads to the phenomenon of neutrinl oscillation.
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But things with different masses should travel at different speeds,
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So what does that mean for the new trainer.
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We do think that the different mass states of neutrino
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should travel at different speeds. If the neutrino traveled for
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long enough, the three wave packets for the three different
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mass states would slowly spread out over time until they
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no longer overlap. This would cause what we call decoherence,
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and in that case we wouldn't see neutrinol oscillation. We'd
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always have the same proportion of electron, muon and town
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neutrinos showing up each time. But to get these decoherent neutrinos,
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they'd have to have traveled an incredible distance, way further
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than any experiment we could ever build on Earth. The
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only neutrinos we know of that might experience this phenomenon
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are the ones that have been traveling since the Big Bang. Unfortunately,
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there's so low energy at this point that we don't
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have detectors sensitive enough to see them.
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As you can see, examining the speed of neutrinos is
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anything but simple, and there's still more to uncover. Big
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Bang neutrinos, also known as relic neutrinos or the cosmic
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neutrino background, are one of my favorite neutrino physics topics.
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Fun fact. When a neutrino is created, it's immediately going
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full speed. There's no acceleration period like your car, and
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whileli can slow down while traveling through material like water
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or air, neutrinos are basically always traveling at the same speed.
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This is because they aren't interacting with anything the way
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that light does through electromagnetism, so it takes the very
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expansion of spacetime itself to stretch their wavelengths and slow
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them down.
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Bonus fun fact. In twenty eleven, neutrinos made headlines when
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the Opera Experiment reported a measurement that seemed to show
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neutrinos moving faster than the speed of light. Investigations showed
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that it was actually an equipment error in the experiment,
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and neutrinos do a base special relativity after all. Interestingly,
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one of the experiments that cross checked the Opera result
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was Icarus, which measured the same neutrinos as Opera with
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a different timing system. Everything's coming full circle because Icarus
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was moved to Fermi Lab in twenty seventeen and is
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now taking data in Fermi Labs. Booster and neutrino beam.
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LEDs neutrino physicist doctor Kirsty Duffy and Durham University in
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trino theorist doctor Jessica Turner in that special report from Fermilab,
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and this space time still the calm. Neptune's mysterious moon
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to Reed and a safe return to Earth in that
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South Australian outback were a hypersonic test vehicle. All that
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and more still the calm on space time. A new
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study suggests that planet Neptune's distant moon, the Reed, may
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be the last of the Ice Shant's original satellites which
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somehow managed to survive a cosmic billiard game. Neptune is
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the eighth and most distant known planet from the Sun,
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and it has sixteen known moons, The Ludge the Witch
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is Triton, the only Neptune moon large enough to have
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become rounded under its own gravity. Triton is a frozen
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world with a thin, hazy atmosphere, and it's peppered with
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cryovolcanoes erupting dark ice high under the sky. This ejector
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is then blown across the Moon's frozen, nitrogen covered surface
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by strong winds, leaving dark streaks across the ground. As
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the material falls back to the icy surface, Triton orbits
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Neptune in retrogres that is, in the opposite direction of
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its host planet's rotation, and it's the only large moon
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in the Solar System to do so. And that's because
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Triton is thought to be a captured kiper built object
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from the frigid outskirts of the Solar System that was
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caught up in Neptune's gravitational field billions of years ago.
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During that encounter, Trenton must have scattered Neptune's original moons,
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putting them on destructive collision courses. One of the few
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exceptions to this fate looks like it could be the
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tiny moon ne Reed, Neptune's third largest New observations suggests
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that this three hundred and fifty seven kilometre wide world
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was instead flying into an extreme elyptical orbit around Neptune.
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The studies lead author, Matthew Blacob from cal Tech is
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what scientists know about the Reed is very limited. For
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its size, the Reed is extremely understudied. It was discovered
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by Dutch astronomer Gerhard Kaiper forty years ago. He named
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the moon after the sea nymphs in Greek mythology. The
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Reed's extremely eccentric orbit around Neptune takes a full Earth
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year to come complete, ranging from one point four to
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nine point six kilometers like Triton. The Reed was originally
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thought to be a captured Carperbilt object. However, new observations
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by the web Space Telescope suggests that ne Reed's composition
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is inconsistent with the capperbuilt origin. The new findings, reported
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of the journal Science Advances, claims that the Reed simply
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has too much ice, and that suggested it could be
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part of Neptune's original satellite system. The observations show its
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