Sept. 8, 2026

Molten Planets and Solar Storms: Unveiling Cosmic Wonders

Molten Planets and Solar Storms: Unveiling Cosmic Wonders
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Season 29
SpaceTime Series 29 Episode 108 Discovery of a new class of molten planet Astronomers have discovered a new type of molten planet beyond our Solar System. The mother of all solar storms New evidence in tree ring records is showing scientists that the Sun can become far more violent than previously thought. Two giant blobs of hot rock discovered on Earth’s core mantle boundary Scientists have discovered two immense, ultra-hot rock structures located at the base of Earth’s mantle, around 2,900 kilometres beneath Africa and the Pacific which are affecting the underlying liquid outer core. The Science Report A new study suggests El Niño is intensifying as the planet warms. Researchers have discovered that some centenarians have rare cancer killing cells in their bodies. A new study shows Tasmanian tigers were significantly different from both wolves and wild dogs. Warnings that Artificial Intelligence is making writing styles more similar and losing the individual identity. Alex on Tech Apple’s new iphone fold Ultra.

Our Guests This Week Dr Benjamin Pope from Macquarie University Chelsea Gohd NASA Public Engagement Specialist Astrophysicist Jason Rhodes NASA JPL Astrophysicist DIda Markovic NASA JPL Astrophysicist Eric Huff NASA JPL Our regular guests: Alex Zaharov-Reutt from techadvice.life Tim Mendham from Australian Skeptics 🌏 Get Our Exclusive NordVPN deal here ➼ www.bitesz.com/nordvpn . The discounts and bonuses are incredible! And it’s risk-free with Nord’s 30-day money-back guarantee! ✌ If you’d like to support the podcast and gain access to bonus content by becoming a SpaceTime crew member, you can do just that through The Big Bang editions on Patreon, Spotify and Apple Podcasts. Details on the Support page on our website https://www.bitesz.com/show/spacetime/support/

The Astronomy, Space, Technology & Science News Podcast.

WEBVTT

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This is Space Time, Series 29, Episode 108, for broadcast

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on the 9th of September, 2026. Coming up on Space Time.

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Discovery of a new class of molten planet. Ancient tree

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warnings about the next big solar storm. And two giant

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blobs of hot rock discovered on the Earth's core mantle boundary.

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All that and more coming up on Space Time.

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Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Gary.

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Astronomers have discovered a new type of molten planet beyond

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our solar system.

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The findings, reported in the journal Nature.

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Astronomy, suggest this strange exoplanet stores large amounts of sulfur

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deep within a permanent ocean of magma. The exoplanet, known

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as L9859d, is about 1.6 times the size of the

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Earth and orbits a small red dwarf star about 35

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light-years away. Observations with NASA's Webb Space Telescope suggested something unusual.

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The planet had an especially low density given its size,

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and it peaced to contain significant amounts of hydrogen sulfide

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in its atmosphere. Until now, astronomers would have placed a

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planet like this into one of two very familiar categories,

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either a rocky gas dwarf with an atmosphere of hydrogen,

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or a water world made up of deep.

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Oceans and ice.

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But the new findings show that L9859d fits neither description. Instead,

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it appears to belong to an entirely different class of planet,

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one containing heavy sulfur molecules. To try and work out

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what's going on, astronomers used computer simulations to try and

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reconstruct this strange world's evolution over the past 5 billion years.

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By directly linking telescope observations to these physical models of

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planetary interiors and atmospheres, the authors were able to determine

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what must be going on deep inside the planet. And

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their results revealed that the mantle of L9859D is likely

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molten silicate similar to lava here on Earth, with a

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global magma ocean extending thousands of kilometers beneath. This vast

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molten reservoir allows the planet to store extremely large amounts

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of sulfur deep inside its interior and maintain that over

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geologic timescales. The magma ocean also helps L9859D to retain

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a thick hydrogen-rich atmosphere containing sulfur-bearing gases.

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Like hydrogen sulfide.

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And normally, this would be lost into space over time

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due to X-ray radiation produced by the host star. The

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study's lead author, Harrison Nichols from Oxford University, says the

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findings suggest that L9859d may be the first recognized member

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of a broader population of gas-rich sulfurous planets sustaining long-lived

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magma oceans. Now, if that's the case, it means the

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diversity of worlds within our galaxy, the universe for that matter,

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may be even greater than previously imagined. Web observations from

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2024 pointed to the presence of sulfur dioxide among other

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sulfur gases high in L9859D' s upper atmosphere.

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The new models show that these.

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Gases can be created when ultraviolet light from the host star,

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the red dwarf L9859, triggers chemical reactions. At the same time,

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the magma ocean below acts as a massive reservoir for

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buffering these volatile gases, storing and releasing them over billions

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of years after the planet was formed. This combination of

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deep volatile gases within its interior and ultraviolet-driven atmospheric chemistry

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explains the planet's notable properties. According to the simulations, L9859d

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likely formed with a large amount of volatile material. It

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may once have looked more like sort of a large

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sub-Neptune planet. And over billions of years, it gradually shrank

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as it cooled and lost some of its atmosphere. Of course,

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magma oceans represent the universal initial states of all rocky planets,

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including planets like the Earth and Mars. So the new

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insights into magma ocean physics can inform scientists about our

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own world and its primordial history. This is space time.

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Still to come, what ancient tree rings are telling us

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about the next big solar storm, and two giant blobs

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of hot rock discovered on the Earth's core mantle boundary.

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All that and more still to come. on Space Time.

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New evidence in tree ring records are warning scientists that

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our sun can become far more violent than previously thought.

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The findings, reported in the journal Communications Earth and Environment,

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demonstrates how a local star can unleash a solar storm

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far larger than we've ever recorded. And a study of

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some of the planet's oldest trees suggested we could soon

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be due for one of these events. The first clear

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signs of exceptionally high solar activity came from Japanese cedar trees.

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In 2012, Fusamiaki was studying slices of ancient Japanese cedar

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taken from a tree filled in the 1950s. It had

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grown on Yakushima Island, a protected site famed for its

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long-lived trees, some of which have stood for millennia, laying

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down one ring of wood after another, year after year.

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These tree rings are not just markers of age. They're

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also annual records of the Earth's atmosphere, and studying them

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could help scientists predict and prepare for future disruptive solar storms.

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The key is the relative proportion of carbon-14 in each

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tree ring. It reveals how active the sun was each year.

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While examining these ancient tree records, Miyake discovered that between

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the years 774 and 775, the amount of this isotope, carbon-14,

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in the cedar jumped by about 12 parts per thousand,

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roughly 20 times larger than the change expected from ordinary

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variations in the sun. The massive spike means Earth's atmosphere

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must have been hit by a sudden burst of unusually

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energetic particles, and the same signature was later identified in

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trees from North America and Europe. And the measurements of

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another radioisotope, beryllium-10, in ice core samples further confirmed the discovery.

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Scientists initially speculated the cause may have been a nearby

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supernova explosion, a gamma-ray burst, or maybe a blast from

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a neutron star. These have all been ruled out because

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the nearest possible sources are far too distant. And that

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left solar flares from the Sun as the most likely cause.

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Solar flares happen when magnetic energy that's been building up

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in the Sun's atmosphere is suddenly released.

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In a matter of minutes, a patch of.

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The Sun can brighten violently, ejecting radiation across the electromagnetic

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spectrum from radio waves to X-rays. Often, these eruptions are

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accompanied by streams of high-speed charged particles and vast bubbles

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of magnetized plasma, known as coronal mass ejections. Scientists know

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unusually large solar flares have hit the Earth before, the

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most famous being the Carrington event in 1859. That eruption

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was so intense that telegraph lines across Europe and North

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America caught fire, telegraph operators suddenly got electric shocks, and

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auroral lights normally confined to polar latitudes were seen deep

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into the tropics. Ever since, Carrington has been the benchmark

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for solar violence. But the strange thing is, even Carrington

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wasn't powerful enough to leave a clear carbon-14 signature in

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tree rings. To do that, the sun would need to

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unleash a storm at least 10 times larger, a super flare. Now,

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since Miyake's first discovery, scientists have found five more Miyake events,

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occurring roughly every 2,000 years. In 2013, Miyake's team found

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a second spike in cedar and cypress rings confirmed in

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European oak and Siberian larch. Then using beryllium-10 measurements from

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Greenland ice cores and matching the carbon-14 signatures in Polish oak,

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scientists were able to identify another in the year 664.

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In 2022, two more events were identified, followed by a

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fifth in sub-fossil scots pine from the French Alps in 2023.

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That one dated back to a massive blast some 14,350

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years ago. Although these super flares are rare, they still

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represent a challenge for science's understanding of solar physics. That's

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because stars like our Sun aren't expected to produce events

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on this scale. However, the evidence is clear. They have

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happened in the past, and could happen again. To determine

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how likely these super flares are, scientists have been sifting

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through the records, combining high-resolution carbon-14 data from tree rings

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spanning almost an entire millennium. And they've now come up

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with eight more signatures, not quite as big as the

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Miyake super flares, but significant nevertheless. Five of these were

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newly measured in European oak, mainly from Germany and France,

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while three came from existing tree ring datasets. They then

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modelled Earth's carbon cycle to search for abrupt increases in carbon-14,

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finding four candidate intermediate events around the years 14, 553,

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675 and 954, meaning a frequency of around 1 every

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200 years. Benjamin Pope from Macquarie University says the exact

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nature of the danger posed by these intermediate class events

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depends on what's actually causing them. Pope says if the

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culprit is a coronal mass ejection, the main threat would

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come from the way the event distorts Earth's magnetic field.

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It could trigger a geomagnetic storm, driving unwanted currents through

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power grids, pipelines and other long conductive systems. The damage

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would be uneven, shaped by geography, geology and the layout

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of the infrastructure.

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On the ground.

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Earp warns of a scenario in which an event may

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take out critical manufacturing capabilities. But interpreting solar events from

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carbon-14 can be complex. See, the carbon-14 spike is made

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high in the atmosphere. It then has to filter down

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into the air that the trees absorb. By then, a

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tree may already be growing new wood using carbon stored

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from previous years. Wood that's formed at the start of

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the annual growth season could be especially prone to this blurring,

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while later growing wood may offer a clearer annual signal.

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Pope says some tree rings start growing around spring, but

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the carbon they used to grow that ring could be

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from previous years. The point of this work isn't only

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to work out how often civilization might be jolted by

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a super solar storm. Miyake events may be telling us

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something profound about the sun itself. Pope says the real

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question remains, when will the next big solar storm come,

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and just how bad will it be?

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So there's this thing called radiocarbon dating, where you measure

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the content of carbon-14, an isotope that's radioactive, compared to carbon-12,

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which is most of the carbon in the world, which

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is stable. carbon-14 in something and you're able to tell

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how old it is because carbon-14 is produced by radiation

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hitting the atmosphere. It filters through the atmosphere, the carbon

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cycle into plants and animals you and me and we

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are all constantly being topped up with fresh carbon-14 from

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on the air and from the things we eat. The

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thing is, though, when we die, which does happen to

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all of us, this top-up stops happening. And so it

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means that now the amount of carbon-14, which is radioactive

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and starts to decay, is like a clock that can

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tell you how old something is. So the thing you

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need to know in order to tell how old something is,

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is you measure the amount of radiocarbon in it and

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you compare it to the amount it should have started with.

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But here's your problem. How do you know how much

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it started with? And so there's actually a different amount

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of radiation striking atmosphere every year, producing a different amount

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of radiocarbon. And so there's no really easy way to

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be able to say from a physical started with and

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therefore how old the sample is. So what you've got

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to do is take advantage of another type of clock

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that nature's provided us with, that is tree rings. So

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every tree ring records a year of growth. You can

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see these in your hardwood table. And so the trick

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is that a good year and a bad year are

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usually the same good year and the same bad year

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for all the trees of the same species in the

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same region. And so what it means is that the

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pattern of long and short tree rings is really the

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same across all the different trees of the same species

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in the same region, where I might mean all the

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Huon pines in Tasmania or all the oaks in Europe

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or something, right? So I mean quite a big region

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and quite a big species, right? And so what you

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can therefore do is you can read these like a

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barcode and say how old some tree rings are to

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the exact year. What you do is you start by

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daisy chaining them. You look at an old tree today

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and you know what the date is today and you

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count 200 years going back in time. But then you

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look at older trees, they might be in buildings or

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they might be fossilized in bulks or whatever. You look

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at these older trees and you try and say, okay,

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where do these barcodes overlap with the one we know?

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And so you can build up a library going back

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millennia sometimes for some species in some regions. of these

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00:13:11.970 --> 00:13:14.519
tree ring barcodes that allow you to do a science

219
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called dendrochronology, which is Greek for tree timing. It means

220
00:13:17.960 --> 00:13:20.419
you can find a sample of wood from any given

221
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year going all the way back to the Ice Age.

222
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And so it means that you can say, I know

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exactly how old this wood is, and then I can

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measure the amount of radiocarbon in it, and therefore I

225
00:13:29.090 --> 00:13:32.409
can tell how much radiocarbon it started with. So, scientists

226
00:13:32.429 --> 00:13:34.440
have been using this for decades in order to do

227
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archaeology better. They've also been interested in doing astronomy with

228
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these trees. So, using the world's forests as the world's

229
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biggest telescope by saying, well, okay, we're interested not in

230
00:13:44.080 --> 00:13:47.120
the archaeology that we might be, but specifically in how

231
00:13:47.179 --> 00:13:49.330
and why it is the amount of radiation. hitting the

232
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atmosphere vary from year to year. And so it turns

233
00:13:52.090 --> 00:13:54.830
out that this is basically related mainly to solar activity.

234
00:13:55.110 --> 00:13:57.690
So the sun waxes and wanes in strength in terms

235
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of its magnetic fields every 11 years. And so when

236
00:14:00.330 --> 00:14:02.509
the magnetic field's strong, it blocks out a lot of

237
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radiation from reaching the Earth. And when it's weak, a

238
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lot of radiation is let through. It's like a force

239
00:14:06.649 --> 00:14:09.250
field protecting us from cosmic rays. So I mean, sometimes

240
00:14:09.289 --> 00:14:12.460
you have more radiocarbon, sometimes you have less. So far,

241
00:14:12.500 --> 00:14:15.340
so good. And so there was this scientist, Fusa Miyake

242
00:14:15.379 --> 00:14:17.159
was her name, and we call them Miyake events for

243
00:14:17.200 --> 00:14:19.159
this reason. who went and took a bunch of tree

244
00:14:19.200 --> 00:14:22.960
rings from the 700s AD, and she measured their radiocarbon

245
00:14:23.000 --> 00:14:26.059
content and found something shocking. There was a single year,

246
00:14:26.379 --> 00:14:31.210
huge influx of radiation about 774 AD, unlike anything that

247
00:14:31.230 --> 00:14:34.669
had previously been measured in these tree rings. And that

248
00:14:34.690 --> 00:14:37.649
was called the first Miyake event. After that, she took

249
00:14:37.789 --> 00:14:40.379
very precise measurements of a number of other such events,

250
00:14:40.480 --> 00:14:42.840
which were maybe a little bit smaller. And other scientists,

251
00:14:43.080 --> 00:14:45.360
including our team, have discovered other ones down the track.

252
00:14:45.539 --> 00:14:49.679
So there's maybe half a dozen rock-solid discoveries of Miyake

253
00:14:49.720 --> 00:14:51.860
events and maybe a half a dozen more where different

254
00:14:51.899 --> 00:14:54.330
groups of people dispute like, oh, I think there was

255
00:14:54.370 --> 00:14:56.929
a big radiation event in this year. So the critical

256
00:14:56.970 --> 00:14:58.330
thing is we don't know what they are.

257
00:14:58.490 --> 00:15:00.629
And these events happened all over the world. They weren't

258
00:15:00.649 --> 00:15:02.649
just in Japan or Australia there.

259
00:15:02.850 --> 00:15:03.309
Absolutely.

260
00:15:03.370 --> 00:15:05.860
They're everywhere. So we know this was a global event.

261
00:15:06.039 --> 00:15:07.960
Absolutely. And so we don't know what they are. The

262
00:15:08.019 --> 00:15:10.279
fact that it was global probably tells you something that

263
00:15:10.299 --> 00:15:14.570
was astronomical, right? And the biggest sort of candidate for

264
00:15:14.690 --> 00:15:17.409
something that influences the radiation environment of the Earth is

265
00:15:17.450 --> 00:15:19.120
still the sun. So a few of us have looked.

266
00:15:19.500 --> 00:15:22.279
at is there any evidence for supernovae doing this? And

267
00:15:22.299 --> 00:15:24.919
the answer is basically no. We've measured across a whole

268
00:15:24.980 --> 00:15:29.419
bunch of supernovae years, no radiocarbon influence from the sort

269
00:15:29.440 --> 00:15:32.509
of the known supernovae. It really is probably something much

270
00:15:32.549 --> 00:15:36.029
more local. But what exactly the sun must be doing

271
00:15:36.070 --> 00:15:38.830
to cause these? Really up for debate. Is it possible

272
00:15:38.870 --> 00:15:41.149
that something other than the sun is causing these? I

273
00:15:41.200 --> 00:15:44.559
think most people don't think so, but certainly there are possibilities,

274
00:15:44.879 --> 00:15:45.100
I think.

275
00:15:45.279 --> 00:15:46.519
And these are fairly common.

276
00:15:46.799 --> 00:15:49.419
It depends what you mean by common. For astronomers, very common.

277
00:15:49.600 --> 00:15:51.399
You know, they happen once every thousand years. For you

278
00:15:51.440 --> 00:15:53.610
and me, when we take off our hats as astronomers,

279
00:15:54.009 --> 00:15:56.450
probably not that common. Once every thousand years isn't something

280
00:15:56.470 --> 00:15:59.009
I'm losing sleep over. The thing is, though, once every

281
00:15:59.049 --> 00:16:01.149
thousand years, they seem to happen at random. We haven't

282
00:16:01.190 --> 00:16:03.470
yet found any way of predicting them. This is not

283
00:16:03.509 --> 00:16:05.840
a periodic once every thousand years. This is a random

284
00:16:05.899 --> 00:16:08.320
once a thousand years. And so it means, what's the

285
00:16:08.340 --> 00:16:10.200
chance of cursive say in the next decade? That could

286
00:16:10.220 --> 00:16:10.740
be 1%.

287
00:16:10.740 --> 00:16:13.120
You're talking to an astronomer here who is waiting with

288
00:16:13.179 --> 00:16:16.980
bated breath for Etta Carina to explode and Betelgeuse to

289
00:16:17.019 --> 00:16:17.960
do its thing.

290
00:16:18.100 --> 00:16:19.279
I would love that.

291
00:16:19.919 --> 00:16:23.450
That's sort of where I'm coming from. These are very exciting.

292
00:16:23.549 --> 00:16:25.669
I think if one of these things happened, I think

293
00:16:25.710 --> 00:16:27.769
we'd answer a whole lot of questions, but we'd also

294
00:16:27.830 --> 00:16:30.750
be pretty concerned. I think there'd be a lot of

295
00:16:30.789 --> 00:16:32.490
reasons to be worried. One of the reasons I'm doing

296
00:16:32.529 --> 00:16:35.210
this research is because there is a remote but not

297
00:16:35.289 --> 00:16:38.120
tiny possibility that one of these will happen in our lifetimes.

298
00:16:38.259 --> 00:16:41.419
Lots of 1% probability things happen all the time. Insurance

299
00:16:41.740 --> 00:16:44.659
is what we do to deal with those. Eventually, problems

300
00:16:44.700 --> 00:16:46.779
come up. Now, the trouble is, if this is some

301
00:16:46.840 --> 00:16:49.830
kind of global event that brings in a lot of radiation,

302
00:16:49.970 --> 00:16:51.590
we don't really know what it is. How do you

303
00:16:51.649 --> 00:16:54.450
insure against something you don't understand, but where there are

304
00:16:54.490 --> 00:16:56.529
certain possibilities? And let's talk about those, but there are

305
00:16:56.549 --> 00:16:59.090
certain possibilities where it could be catastrophic for us. Certain

306
00:16:59.110 --> 00:17:00.990
possibilities where it could be more benign and a lot

307
00:17:01.009 --> 00:17:04.130
in between. We need to understand these things so that

308
00:17:04.170 --> 00:17:06.940
we can sort of find ways of protecting ourselves against them.

309
00:17:07.000 --> 00:17:10.900
We've experienced the Carrington event in 1859. That caused problems,

310
00:17:10.980 --> 00:17:13.140
but we managed to survive that because we were only

311
00:17:13.240 --> 00:17:16.660
learning technology back then. It was telegraph operators and people

312
00:17:16.680 --> 00:17:18.880
like that who went up getting electrocuted.

313
00:17:18.980 --> 00:17:21.160
Oh, yeah. So for your listeners, yeah. So the Carrington

314
00:17:21.200 --> 00:17:23.700
event was the first recorded solar flare. And it was

315
00:17:23.740 --> 00:17:26.329
also the biggest ever recorded solar flare. That seems like

316
00:17:26.369 --> 00:17:27.990
a bit of a coincidence, but the trick was we

317
00:17:28.029 --> 00:17:30.190
weren't very good at finding solar flares back then. And

318
00:17:30.210 --> 00:17:32.670
so only unusually large ones would have been found. And

319
00:17:32.750 --> 00:17:35.369
so what it did was there was a huge coronal

320
00:17:35.430 --> 00:17:38.809
mass ejection. When mass from the corona of the sun,

321
00:17:38.849 --> 00:17:41.289
that is the sort of surroundings, gets ejected, that is

322
00:17:41.309 --> 00:17:43.430
thrown out into the solar system, as a huge blob

323
00:17:43.450 --> 00:17:47.049
of plasma. And that struck the Earth. The actual plasma...

324
00:17:46.950 --> 00:17:49.730
Directly isn't what caused problems on the Earth. It's that

325
00:17:49.769 --> 00:17:52.710
the plasma hit the Earth's magnetic field and got deflected.

326
00:17:52.910 --> 00:17:55.259
Sounds good, but it bent the magnetic field. You know

327
00:17:55.279 --> 00:17:57.720
what happens when you move a magnetic field through a

328
00:17:57.740 --> 00:18:00.339
loop of conducting wire? You generate a current. And so

329
00:18:00.400 --> 00:18:03.059
what this did was it created a lot of currents in, say,

330
00:18:03.079 --> 00:18:05.519
telegraph systems on Earth. And even in the 1850s, when

331
00:18:05.720 --> 00:18:08.779
that was just getting going, that caused a huge loss

332
00:18:08.799 --> 00:18:11.509
of information, power, all these sorts of things in this

333
00:18:11.809 --> 00:18:15.170
nascent communications and power grid that the Earth had. Now,

334
00:18:15.430 --> 00:18:17.710
this could be catastrophic. if the Carrington event happened today.

335
00:18:17.869 --> 00:18:22.250
Yeah, in 1989, Northeastern United States was hit, Quebec especially.

336
00:18:22.390 --> 00:18:22.690
Oh, yeah.

337
00:18:22.730 --> 00:18:25.269
Which isn't the United States, but close enough. They had

338
00:18:25.309 --> 00:18:25.990
huge blackouts.

339
00:18:26.170 --> 00:18:26.549
Absolutely.

340
00:18:26.589 --> 00:18:28.819
And just in the last year, we actually had blackouts

341
00:18:28.859 --> 00:18:31.220
in parts of Victoria as a result of a small

342
00:18:31.279 --> 00:18:33.799
solar flare hitting the Earth. And so, like, you know,

343
00:18:33.859 --> 00:18:36.819
power companies, satellite companies pay attention to even little ones.

344
00:18:37.240 --> 00:18:39.259
If they sort of strike us in the wrong way.

345
00:18:39.359 --> 00:18:41.960
And so a Carrington event, if that hit the earth today,

346
00:18:42.000 --> 00:18:45.529
what you'd be looking at is unless we took appropriate

347
00:18:45.569 --> 00:18:48.329
steps to mitigate it really quickly, you'd be looking at

348
00:18:48.509 --> 00:18:50.750
a catastrophic loss of a lot of satellites and the

349
00:18:50.789 --> 00:18:53.789
communications that depend on. You'd be looking at power going out.

350
00:18:54.130 --> 00:18:57.380
in a whole lot of high-latitude countries unless people had

351
00:18:57.619 --> 00:19:00.559
really good forewarning and were able to disconnect lots and

352
00:19:00.579 --> 00:19:03.440
lots of stuff. Now, this would be blowing out transformers

353
00:19:03.740 --> 00:19:06.339
in high-latitude countries. You go, okay, well, maybe that wouldn't

354
00:19:06.359 --> 00:19:09.720
affect Australia directly too badly. It depends on the details.

355
00:19:09.819 --> 00:19:12.269
But the trouble is, you know, where's all the industry

356
00:19:12.289 --> 00:19:15.509
in the world? Were you thinking China, Japan, Europe? North America,

357
00:19:15.609 --> 00:19:18.789
that's all at high latitudes, all the really high-tech manufacturing.

358
00:19:18.809 --> 00:19:21.390
So you'd be losing so much of the world's supply chains,

359
00:19:21.410 --> 00:19:23.529
all this business. And I remember when the Suez Canal

360
00:19:23.569 --> 00:19:25.410
was blocked and all the terrible things happening in the

361
00:19:25.450 --> 00:19:28.519
Strait of Hormuz today. There'll be nothing in comparison to

362
00:19:28.539 --> 00:19:31.039
the supply chain losses you'd see here. And so that's

363
00:19:31.160 --> 00:19:33.299
really what I'm scared of, right?

364
00:19:33.579 --> 00:19:37.099
These aren't just minor events that last a couple of days.

365
00:19:37.500 --> 00:19:41.319
It'll take decades to replace those transformers that blow. They

366
00:19:41.339 --> 00:19:44.309
don't keep a supply of 2,000, 3,000 transformers sitting there.

367
00:19:44.369 --> 00:19:45.109
They have to be built.

368
00:19:45.150 --> 00:19:47.690
Oh, yeah. No, we don't have stockpiles. We don't have stockpiles.

369
00:19:47.819 --> 00:19:50.019
you know you'd really need to bring those factories back

370
00:19:50.099 --> 00:19:52.960
online immediately and start to roll them out and reinstall

371
00:19:52.980 --> 00:19:55.779
them across power grids everywhere and yeah i mean if

372
00:19:55.799 --> 00:19:58.660
we took appropriate action to have everything disconnected and to

373
00:19:58.720 --> 00:20:02.569
have repair kits and stockpiles, like maybe it wouldn't be catastrophic,

374
00:20:02.609 --> 00:20:04.769
but it's the sort of thing we really need to

375
00:20:04.789 --> 00:20:07.329
be investing money and time into sort of preparing for,

376
00:20:07.609 --> 00:20:10.000
so that, remember when COVID happened and we all got

377
00:20:10.039 --> 00:20:12.559
vaccines within a year, in the same way, it's really

378
00:20:12.599 --> 00:20:14.359
important that we have a lot of science and technology

379
00:20:14.400 --> 00:20:17.019
rolled out to forecast what the sun could do to

380
00:20:17.099 --> 00:20:19.420
us and start to take steps to mitigate it. So

381
00:20:19.460 --> 00:20:22.849
that instead of taking up civilization for a decade, causes

382
00:20:23.089 --> 00:20:25.349
some hiccups and some problems, which we get over.

383
00:20:25.569 --> 00:20:28.170
And we have no idea what's causing these things. They're

384
00:20:28.190 --> 00:20:31.490
not just unusually high climaxes of solar max or anything

385
00:20:31.509 --> 00:20:31.849
like that?

386
00:20:31.910 --> 00:20:34.450
We don't really know. So the issue, right, is we

387
00:20:34.490 --> 00:20:37.890
don't see any radiocarbon signal from the Carrington event at all.

388
00:20:38.170 --> 00:20:40.549
It basically didn't affect anything that we can record in

389
00:20:40.569 --> 00:20:45.299
tree rings. So one interpretation of these Miyake events is

390
00:20:45.359 --> 00:20:48.500
that these are super-duper Carrington events. That is, they're really

391
00:20:48.559 --> 00:20:52.579
enormous coronal mass ejections, maybe 100 times bigger than Carrington,

392
00:20:52.700 --> 00:20:55.279
which is pretty scary. So if you get something 100

393
00:20:55.279 --> 00:20:57.309
times bigger than Carrington, I don't know what you do. Like,

394
00:20:57.630 --> 00:21:00.789
you're looking at satellite for toast, power grid, internet, God knows.

395
00:21:00.990 --> 00:21:03.970
That would be a global crisis. And, yeah, there might

396
00:21:03.990 --> 00:21:05.609
be ways to avert it, but the best way to

397
00:21:05.650 --> 00:21:08.269
avert it is to understand the physics of what's going on.

398
00:21:08.470 --> 00:21:11.779
On the other hand, isn't it sus that there's very

399
00:21:11.819 --> 00:21:14.400
little radiocarbon signature of the biggest ever solar event? And

400
00:21:14.420 --> 00:21:17.660
that's because most of the particles from those CMEs don't

401
00:21:17.700 --> 00:21:20.059
actually reach the Earth, and so they don't produce radiation

402
00:21:20.079 --> 00:21:22.680
in the upper atmosphere that would produce this radiocarbon. So

403
00:21:22.700 --> 00:21:24.980
on the other hand, there's these other types of solar

404
00:21:25.019 --> 00:21:28.750
events called solar energetic particle events, SEP events, or solar

405
00:21:28.789 --> 00:21:32.230
proton events, where the sun releases beams of high energy particles.

406
00:21:32.490 --> 00:21:34.589
And they can totally do this. And you and I

407
00:21:34.630 --> 00:21:37.150
don't notice that they're going on. They certainly cause problems

408
00:21:37.210 --> 00:21:40.029
for satellites. They don't do anything to the magnetic field, really,

409
00:21:40.069 --> 00:21:42.349
that would blow out power grids on the Earth, though.

410
00:21:42.730 --> 00:21:46.259
And scientists would find that our instruments go completely crazy

411
00:21:46.480 --> 00:21:49.900
while it's happening. But otherwise, other than maybe damage to satellites,

412
00:21:49.940 --> 00:21:52.200
which could be quite serious, but on the ground, you're

413
00:21:52.220 --> 00:21:55.069
not going to see all the transformers collapsing end of civilization.

414
00:21:55.269 --> 00:21:57.230
It probably wouldn't be great for us to have such

415
00:21:57.269 --> 00:22:00.319
an enormous solar energy particle event, but we could probably

416
00:22:00.359 --> 00:22:01.980
cope with it other than the satellite system.

417
00:22:02.099 --> 00:22:04.059
You wouldn't want to be in the South Atlantic anomaly

418
00:22:04.079 --> 00:22:05.059
at the time, surely?

419
00:22:05.119 --> 00:22:07.380
Hell no, absolutely not. And you also wouldn't want to

420
00:22:07.420 --> 00:22:10.900
be in high-altitude aircraft over poles. I've seen papers saying

421
00:22:10.940 --> 00:22:15.059
that a sufficiently large solar energetic particle event occurring while

422
00:22:15.099 --> 00:22:17.160
there were aircraft over the poles, which is all the time,

423
00:22:17.299 --> 00:22:21.450
could actually have really serious health effects. Astronauts, they're not

424
00:22:21.470 --> 00:22:22.569
going to get better necessarily.

425
00:22:22.589 --> 00:22:24.750
There was one published just the other day pointing that out.

426
00:22:24.809 --> 00:22:27.289
And so, I mean, in terms of commercial flights, you

427
00:22:27.309 --> 00:22:29.299
do have a bunch of atmosphere protecting you, but it's

428
00:22:29.559 --> 00:22:31.700
not as much as you'd like. And so it could

429
00:22:31.740 --> 00:22:35.440
cause pretty serious illness, even death if it's a really, really,

430
00:22:35.579 --> 00:22:38.470
really big event. But astronauts... They don't have much protection

431
00:22:38.490 --> 00:22:41.349
at all. If you were in orbit or interplanetary space,

432
00:22:41.470 --> 00:22:43.569
good luck, mate. That's probably the end of you. Even

433
00:22:43.609 --> 00:22:46.059
these solar energetic particle events could be quite serious, but

434
00:22:46.079 --> 00:22:48.619
the sorts of things we worry about are probably more

435
00:22:48.660 --> 00:22:52.119
specialized and more detailed than with these enormous coronal mass

436
00:22:52.140 --> 00:22:53.900
ejections that some of these theories are putting out. There

437
00:22:53.920 --> 00:22:56.029
have been other things discussed. The idea that it might

438
00:22:56.049 --> 00:22:58.450
actually be the opposite is where the sun's magnetic field

439
00:22:58.509 --> 00:23:00.970
reduces a lot. People are sort of debating, is it

440
00:23:01.029 --> 00:23:03.950
possible that a shut off of that force field protecting

441
00:23:03.990 --> 00:23:06.789
us from cosmic rays could produce something like a Miyake event?

442
00:23:06.890 --> 00:23:09.329
And the answer is a solid maybe. I think people

443
00:23:09.369 --> 00:23:12.650
don't really think so, but some people have certainly argued that.

444
00:23:12.750 --> 00:23:13.250
That's Dr.

445
00:23:13.309 --> 00:23:17.650
Benjamin Pope from Macquarie University. And this is Space Time.

446
00:23:18.430 --> 00:23:21.609
Still to come, two giant blobs of hot rock discovered

447
00:23:21.650 --> 00:23:25.240
on Earth's core mantle boundary. Later in the science report...

448
00:23:25.319 --> 00:23:28.619
A new study suggests El Nino is intensifying as the

449
00:23:28.680 --> 00:23:31.759
planet warms. All that and more still to come on

450
00:23:32.059 --> 00:23:51.950
Space Time. Space Time Scientists have discovered two immense ultra-hot

451
00:23:52.049 --> 00:23:54.650
rock structures located at the base of the Earth's mantle,

452
00:23:54.849 --> 00:23:58.390
some 2,000 nanokilometers beneath Africa and the Pacific, which are

453
00:23:58.430 --> 00:24:02.950
affecting the underlying liquid outer core. The findings, reported in

454
00:24:02.970 --> 00:24:06.380
the journal Nature Geoscience, show that these enormous blobs of

455
00:24:06.519 --> 00:24:10.640
solid superheated material encircled by a pole-to-pole ring of cooler

456
00:24:10.680 --> 00:24:14.480
rock have been shaping Earth's magnetic field for millions of years.

457
00:24:15.839 --> 00:24:19.740
While we've traveled 25 billion kilometers into space, the deepest

458
00:24:19.779 --> 00:24:24.880
we've ever gone below our feet is just over 12 kilometers. Consequently,

459
00:24:25.259 --> 00:24:28.920
little is known about conditions at the core-mantle boundary, where

460
00:24:28.940 --> 00:24:30.900
the base of the mantle meets the top of the

461
00:24:31.019 --> 00:24:32.049
outer liquid core.

462
00:24:32.829 --> 00:24:33.460
It's the most.

463
00:24:33.329 --> 00:24:36.509
Significant interface in the Earth's interior, and the region where

464
00:24:36.549 --> 00:24:41.140
new research has now uncovered exciting magnetic activity. Both measuring

465
00:24:41.220 --> 00:24:44.910
ancient magnetic fields and simulating the processes that generate them

466
00:24:45.089 --> 00:24:49.910
are technically demanding. To investigate these deep Earth features, scientists

467
00:24:49.930 --> 00:24:54.369
need to combine paleomagnetic observations with advanced computer simulations of

468
00:24:54.410 --> 00:24:57.309
the geodynamo. That's the flow of liquid iron in the

469
00:24:57.450 --> 00:25:02.140
outer core which generates Earth's magnetic field. Numerical models enable

470
00:25:02.180 --> 00:25:05.259
the authors to reconstruct observations of the behavior of the

471
00:25:05.299 --> 00:25:10.140
magnetic field seen over the past 265 million years. the

472
00:25:10.180 --> 00:25:13.880
results revealed that the article's upper boundary is far from

473
00:25:13.980 --> 00:25:18.920
uniform in temperature. Instead, it displays strong thermal contrasts, with

474
00:25:18.980 --> 00:25:23.900
localized hot regions capped by these continent-sized rock structures. It

475
00:25:23.980 --> 00:25:26.680
also showed that some parts of the magnetic field appear

476
00:25:26.700 --> 00:25:30.089
to have remained relatively stable for hundreds of millions of years,

477
00:25:30.329 --> 00:25:34.029
while others have changed significantly through time. One of the

478
00:25:34.069 --> 00:25:37.410
study's authors, Andy Biggin from the University of Liverpool, says

479
00:25:37.450 --> 00:25:40.319
the findings suggest there are strong temperature contrasts in the

480
00:25:40.380 --> 00:25:42.980
rocky mantle just above the core and that beneath the

481
00:25:43.019 --> 00:25:45.980
hotter regions, the liquid iron in the core may stagnant

482
00:25:46.119 --> 00:25:49.470
rather than participate in the flows seen beneath the cooler regions.

483
00:25:50.289 --> 00:25:54.029
These findings have important implications for the questions surrounding ancient

484
00:25:54.130 --> 00:25:58.259
continental configurations, such as the formation and breakup of Pangea,

485
00:25:58.440 --> 00:26:02.960
and it may help resolve long-standing uncertainties in ancient climate, paleobiology,

486
00:26:03.240 --> 00:26:04.559
and the formation.

487
00:26:04.099 --> 00:26:05.200
Of natural resources.

488
00:26:06.000 --> 00:26:08.920
These areas have always assumed that Earth's magnetic field, when

489
00:26:09.079 --> 00:26:12.299
averaged over long periods, behaves as a perfect bar magnet

490
00:26:12.440 --> 00:26:16.380
aligned with the planet's rotational axis. However, these new findings

491
00:26:16.430 --> 00:26:19.089
suggest that may not necessarily be the case.

492
00:26:20.089 --> 00:26:21.410
This is Space Time.

493
00:26:37.119 --> 00:26:39.000
And time now to take another brief look at some

494
00:26:39.019 --> 00:26:41.240
of the other stories making news in science this week

495
00:26:41.480 --> 00:26:45.980
with a science report. A thousand-year record of sea surface temperatures,

496
00:26:46.099 --> 00:26:50.380
reconstructed from Galapagos corals, suggest El Niño is intensifying as

497
00:26:50.400 --> 00:26:54.549
the planet warms, with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation Enzo variability

498
00:26:54.569 --> 00:26:58.549
in the eastern Pacific roughly 35% higher now compared to

499
00:26:58.609 --> 00:27:03.150
pre-industrial times. The findings, reported in the journal Science, used

500
00:27:03.210 --> 00:27:07.700
high-resolution measurements of modern and fossilized Galapagos corals to reconstruct

501
00:27:07.740 --> 00:27:10.740
sea surface temperatures in the region over the past millennia,

502
00:27:10.819 --> 00:27:13.859
and then compared those with climate simulations to find out

503
00:27:13.900 --> 00:27:17.279
if the changes in ENSO were impacted by global warming.

504
00:27:17.960 --> 00:27:21.039
They found that variability in ENSO has seen an unusually

505
00:27:21.119 --> 00:27:24.680
strong shift in the past 40 years, with modern variability

506
00:27:24.799 --> 00:27:31.250
nearly 37% higher than the pre-industrial record. Scientists have discovered

507
00:27:31.269 --> 00:27:36.349
that some centenarians may host rare cancer-killing cells. The findings,

508
00:27:36.410 --> 00:27:39.390
published in the journal Cell Reports, claims this rare type

509
00:27:39.430 --> 00:27:42.549
of immune cell starts expanding and cloning itself in people

510
00:27:42.569 --> 00:27:45.359
who live past 100, which they say could be helping

511
00:27:45.390 --> 00:27:49.319
preserve their longevity by killing cancers before they grow. The

512
00:27:49.390 --> 00:27:53.319
cells are CD4 cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which are already known

513
00:27:53.359 --> 00:27:56.079
to kill some cancers, and they appear to be more

514
00:27:56.119 --> 00:27:59.349
common in humans above the age of 100. To better

515
00:27:59.410 --> 00:28:02.509
understand them, the authors analyzed the blood of 28 people

516
00:28:02.730 --> 00:28:09.450
aged either 70-99, 100-109, or over 110. In these groups,

517
00:28:09.630 --> 00:28:13.049
the authors say the proportion of CD4 cytotoxic T lymphocytes

518
00:28:13.250 --> 00:28:18.009
had a median percentage of 4, 9.6, and 17.6 respectively,

519
00:28:18.329 --> 00:28:23.430
suggesting a real expansion past the age of 100. A

520
00:28:23.450 --> 00:28:27.410
new study has flipped the historic narrative about Australia's thylacine.

521
00:28:27.450 --> 00:28:31.539
The Tasmanian tiger fighting the native apex predator was significantly

522
00:28:31.630 --> 00:28:34.400
different from the wolves and wild dogs it was likened

523
00:28:34.440 --> 00:28:37.819
to before being hunted to extinction. A report in the

524
00:28:37.839 --> 00:28:42.720
journal Nature Communications claims scientists from Flinders University examining thylacine

525
00:28:42.779 --> 00:28:46.369
skulls found their jaws were probably unsuited for holding down

526
00:28:46.430 --> 00:28:50.710
large animals like sheep, Instead, their long, deep jaws, with

527
00:28:50.789 --> 00:28:53.930
powerful snapping bites, would have been more suited to subdue

528
00:28:54.009 --> 00:28:58.519
relatively small prey. Meanwhile, a report in the journal Biomed's

529
00:28:58.619 --> 00:29:03.319
Central Ecology and Evolution claims Tasmanian tigers hunted more like foxes.

530
00:29:04.000 --> 00:29:06.680
The authors from the University of the Sunshine Coast base

531
00:29:06.720 --> 00:29:10.220
their findings on a comparison of thylacines with 48 living

532
00:29:10.240 --> 00:29:13.660
and extinct predatory mammal species, from domestic dogs through to

533
00:29:13.779 --> 00:29:18.059
African wildcats. A new study has found that the use

534
00:29:18.099 --> 00:29:22.039
of artificial intelligence large language models are making writing styles

535
00:29:22.099 --> 00:29:25.720
more similar, in the process losing the individual identity and

536
00:29:25.829 --> 00:29:29.789
personality behind the work. The findings, reported in the journal

537
00:29:29.829 --> 00:29:32.789
Nature Human Behavior, are based on an analysis of more

538
00:29:32.809 --> 00:29:37.789
than 880,000 texts across different writing types. The authors suggest

539
00:29:37.809 --> 00:29:40.839
this could make it more difficult to identify individuals clues

540
00:29:40.900 --> 00:29:44.740
about aspects of a person's identity, personality, and even mental

541
00:29:44.799 --> 00:29:49.250
health from their language. They analyzed Reddit stories, news articles,

542
00:29:49.450 --> 00:29:53.569
academic papers, essays, social media posts, and political speeches over

543
00:29:53.650 --> 00:29:57.130
time to see how the rise of widespread chatbot usage

544
00:29:57.269 --> 00:30:00.940
has changed writing style. And they found evidence of both

545
00:30:00.980 --> 00:30:04.799
an intermediate shock, where the introduction of chat GPT coincided

546
00:30:04.839 --> 00:30:08.079
with a sharp drop in variability, and a sustained effect,

547
00:30:08.299 --> 00:30:11.380
in which higher levels of AI usage have continued to

548
00:30:11.420 --> 00:30:17.309
reduce the complexity of language over time. Apple's new iPhone

549
00:30:17.309 --> 00:30:20.549
18 Pro, 18 Pro Max and Fold Ultra have just

550
00:30:20.609 --> 00:30:24.690
been released, and fans are growing wild. Needless to say,

551
00:30:24.710 --> 00:30:29.250
the long-awaited new passport-sized Fold Ultra heads the lineup. But

552
00:30:29.289 --> 00:30:32.650
the conventional flagship 18 Pro Max won't be left out.

553
00:30:32.869 --> 00:30:37.210
It features a larger battery, smaller dynamic island, a 2nm

554
00:30:37.589 --> 00:30:41.890
A20 chipset, variable aperture main camera and a triple 48MP

555
00:30:41.950 --> 00:30:45.319
rear camera system. Of course, price will be a big

556
00:30:45.400 --> 00:30:49.160
factor this year, with the 12GB RAM and 2TB model

557
00:30:49.240 --> 00:30:52.789
costing just over $ 4, 000. With the details, we're joined by

558
00:30:52.829 --> 00:30:56.529
technology editor Alex Saharov-Royd from techadvice.life.

559
00:30:56.690 --> 00:30:59.269
We've got the iPhone 18 Pro, the Pro Max, but

560
00:30:59.289 --> 00:31:00.250
of course the big one that.

561
00:31:00.150 --> 00:31:02.579
Everyone's talking about is the iPhone Fold.

562
00:31:02.640 --> 00:31:06.460
Now this promises to have the most crease-free display ever

563
00:31:06.500 --> 00:31:09.240
because they're talking about a piece of ultra-thin glass on top,

564
00:31:09.299 --> 00:31:11.619
the OLED in between, and then a second piece of

565
00:31:11.660 --> 00:31:14.690
glass on the bottom with a liquid metal hinge. Samsung

566
00:31:14.710 --> 00:31:17.150
has only got one piece of glass on top, and

567
00:31:17.170 --> 00:31:18.549
then it's got titanium on the bottom.

568
00:31:18.569 --> 00:31:21.890
Now, you can still see the crease on Samsung's Fold.

569
00:31:21.549 --> 00:31:23.380
8, but you can barely feel it.

570
00:31:23.450 --> 00:31:25.789
And I've got a Google Pixel Fold 11 Pro, and

571
00:31:25.829 --> 00:31:28.339
you can feel the crease. It sort of feels a

572
00:31:28.359 --> 00:31:31.200
bit deep, but on the Samsung, it's virtually not there.

573
00:31:31.299 --> 00:31:33.859
But the expectation is that Apple's is going to either

574
00:31:34.000 --> 00:31:35.119
not be there at all, or it's going to be

575
00:31:35.140 --> 00:31:38.240
the flattest crease of all time, which is incredible, and

576
00:31:38.259 --> 00:31:38.950
I can't wait to see it.

577
00:31:39.440 --> 00:31:41.789
And you are right, they've gone with a passport size

578
00:31:41.869 --> 00:31:43.309
rather than the full size.

579
00:31:43.609 --> 00:31:45.750
We officially don't know, but I mean, the rumors are

580
00:31:45.769 --> 00:31:46.230
so strong.

581
00:31:46.269 --> 00:31:48.109
People have got millions of videos of a dummy unit.

582
00:31:48.170 --> 00:31:49.369
If Apple doesn't come out with.

583
00:31:49.269 --> 00:31:51.569
The folding phone, it's going to be a big, massive

584
00:31:51.589 --> 00:31:54.000
disappointment for people. The share price will crater. But look,

585
00:31:54.119 --> 00:31:56.619
it's also going to be the first Apple keynote with

586
00:31:56.700 --> 00:31:59.480
its new CEO in 15 years, John Ternus, an engineer

587
00:31:59.579 --> 00:32:00.160
who has been.

588
00:32:00.059 --> 00:32:03.859
With the company for 25 years, worked on iPhones, iPads, AirPods, you.

589
00:32:03.779 --> 00:32:04.900
Know, Vision Pro devices.

590
00:32:05.269 --> 00:32:05.630
Everything.

591
00:32:05.869 --> 00:32:08.490
And this is effectively.

592
00:32:08.009 --> 00:32:10.390
The start of a brand new era with what should

593
00:32:10.430 --> 00:32:15.390
be Apple's most successful, popular and AI-enabled iPhones yet. And

594
00:32:15.430 --> 00:32:17.579
Tim Cook is now the chairman, of course, and still

595
00:32:17.599 --> 00:32:19.779
got his hand on the tiller. He's still the mentor

596
00:32:19.799 --> 00:32:22.180
that's there doing all the international relations and the things

597
00:32:22.200 --> 00:32:23.440
that a chairman of the board does.

598
00:32:23.599 --> 00:32:25.849
But John Ternus is now firmly in command. We will

599
00:32:25.869 --> 00:32:27.789
see what sort of performance he gives. Of course, Apple

600
00:32:27.829 --> 00:32:30.769
no longer does live keynotes, unlike what Google or Samsung do.

601
00:32:30.789 --> 00:32:32.950
But look, Apple is Apple. I'm expecting great things.

602
00:32:33.049 --> 00:32:36.509
And, you know, will we see hints of new touchscreen

603
00:32:36.569 --> 00:32:37.710
Macs and other things?

604
00:32:37.759 --> 00:32:38.200
I don't think so.

605
00:32:38.259 --> 00:32:40.319
It's the iPhone event. They're going to be all hands

606
00:32:40.380 --> 00:32:42.640
on deck for that. There'll be more announcements later in

607
00:32:42.660 --> 00:32:44.759
the year for first touchscreen Macs. And of course, we'll

608
00:32:44.779 --> 00:32:46.460
have an event next year by the end of the

609
00:32:46.500 --> 00:32:50.109
first quarter. where we'll have the iPhone 18s, the regular.

610
00:32:49.890 --> 00:32:52.390
Ones, plus also the iPhone 18e, which will be the

611
00:32:52.670 --> 00:32:55.529
low-cost one, and the iPhone 18 Air, most likely, although

612
00:32:55.549 --> 00:32:57.799
it might come this week. We shall see.

613
00:32:57.900 --> 00:33:03.609
That's Alex Saharov-Royd from techadvice.live. And this is Space Time.

614
00:33:19.130 --> 00:33:23.069
And that's the show for now. Spacetime is available every Monday,

615
00:33:23.190 --> 00:33:28.650
Wednesday and Friday through Bytes.com, SoundCloud, YouTube, your favorite podcast

616
00:33:28.670 --> 00:33:34.660
download provider and from Spacetime with StuartGarry.com. Spacetime's also broadcast

617
00:33:34.680 --> 00:33:38.099
through the National Science Foundation on Science Zone Radio and

618
00:33:38.140 --> 00:33:41.700
on both iHeart Radio and TuneIn Radio. And you can

619
00:33:41.740 --> 00:33:44.700
help to support our show by visiting the Spacetime store

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for a range of promotional merchandising goodies. or by becoming

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00:33:48.549 --> 00:33:52.490
a Spacetime patron, which gives you access to triple-episode commercial-free

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00:33:52.569 --> 00:33:54.990
versions of the show, as well as lots of bonus

623
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audio content which doesn't go to air, access to our

624
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exclusive Facebook group, and other rewards. Just go to spacetimewithstuartgary.com

625
00:34:03.650 --> 00:34:04.650
for full details.

626
00:34:05.559 --> 00:34:08.420
You've been listening to Spacetime with Stuart Gary.

627
00:34:08.679 --> 00:34:12.019
This has been another quality podcast production from Bytes.com.