Episode 38: The French Invasion of Italy

I Take History With My Coffee Podcast
Episode: 38
Title: The French Invasion of Italy

“In this mood and amid this confusion of affairs so clearly tending toward fresh troubles the year 1494 began, a most unhappy year for Italy, and truly the beginning of years of wretchedness, because it opened the way for innumerable horrible calamities which later for various reasons affected a great part of the rest of the world.”
Francesco Guicciardini, The History of Italy, 1540

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16th-century Florentine diplomat, writer, and historian Francesco Guicciardini wrote, “The French invasion, like a sudden storm, turned everything topsy-turvy.”  For Guicciardini, Machiavelli, and others of their generation, the French invasion of Italy in 1494 was a seminal event.  It struck at the collective psyche of Italians. Even today, King Charles VIII’s invasion is regarded as an essential moment signaling the end of the golden age of the Italian Renaissance.   Back in Episode 21, I noted how the history of northern and central Italy in the 15th century was bookmarked by two defining moments.  At the beginning of the century, it was the struggle of Florence, the self-promoting defender of Italian liberty, against the ambitions of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Duke of Milan, to unite Italy under his rule.  Visconti’s untimely death in 1402 saved Florence and the rest of Italy and allowed the Florentine Renaissance to blossom and flourish.  At the end of the century, the French invasion and the subsequent decades of warfare would diminish Italy’s standing as the cultural center of Europe.  And it would forestall any hope of any Italian nation-state as would happen north of the Alps, at least until the 19th century.

The root of all these troubles was the dispute over the Kingdom of Naples between the House of Aragon and the House of Anjou.    A lack of focus characterized French political interests in Italy during most of the 15th century. The primary concerns were directed towards the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, historically associated with the Normans and the Angevins.  French involvement in the Mediterranean was often indirect, primarily supporting the Angevins. Genoa attracted periodic attention due to its proximity and commercial significance, falling under the dominion of Charles VI and Charles VII during specific periods.

The marriage of Charles d'Orleans to Valentina Visconti in 1387 sparked an interest in Milan. Among the Italian states, Florence stood as a traditional ally of the Angevins, with commercial ties to France, making them susceptible to French influence. Additionally, maintaining representation in Rome became crucial for the French king, especially after the papacy's return to Rome from Avignon.

The accession of Louis XI in 1461 marked a notable increase in French royal interest in Italy. Having involved himself in Italian politics as the dauphin, Louis continued to do so as king. He played a mediating role, acting as an arbiter in Italian political conflicts. The Angevins' claim to the throne of Naples and the Orleanists' claim to the duchy of Milan were now in the hands of the French crown.  This added to the incentive for direct French involvement. Moreover, the integration of Provence into France provided access to the Mediterranean, positioning France as a potential Mediterranean power with ports like Marseille and Toulon. 

King Louis XI prioritized consolidating royal authority within France and mediating Italian conflicts to maintain stability.  But as we have seen, a mere suspicion of French involvement sent opposing factions to resolve their differences.  Lorenzo de Medici made it central to his foreign policy to keep together the Holy League formed after the Peace of Lodi.  If Italy were at peace, then the French would not be needed.  

The death of Lorenzo de' Medici in 1492, recognized by King Ferrante of Naples as a blow to the peace of Italy, had repercussions on the region’s stability. Additionally, Neapolitan influence in Milan had eroded under Duke Galeazzo Maria and, later, Ludovico Sforza, who sought to bolster his position by turning to France as a judge in Italian affairs.  But even Ludovico Sforza would come to regret this fateful decision. 

The death of King Louis XI in 1483 marked a shift in France's approach to Italian affairs.  Louis was succeeded by his son, Charles VIII, who inherited a kingdom with a growing population, a thriving economy, and a more secure monarchy. The direct rule of the crown expanded during Louis's reign. The death of Charles the Bold in 1477 without a male heir led to the reversion of the Duchy of Burgundy to the French crown, further strengthening its position. However, complications arose with the marriage of Charles the Bold's daughter Mary to Maximilian, the son of the Hapsburg emperor. This alliance meant France had to be wary of the Hapsburg on its northern and eastern frontiers. Louis tried to mitigate this by arranging the betrothal of his son Charles to Margaret, the daughter of Mary and Maximilian.

Charles VIII ascended to the throne at the age of thirteen, under the guidance of his elder sister, Anne, and her husband, Pierre de Beaujeu. A war against the Duchy of Brittany marked the early part of his reign. Despite the support of the Spanish monarchs, Henry VII of England, and Maximilian, the French army, led by Louis d'Orleans, emerged victorious in 1488. The death of Duke Francis II left his daughter Anne as the heiress to Brittany.

Anne had accepted a proxy marriage with Maximilian, but under French pressure, she set aside this marriage and married Charles in 1491. The resolution of the Breton wars promised closer integration of Brittany into France, contingent on Charles and Anne producing an heir. However, the wars left a legacy of suspicion and hostility between France and those who supported Breton independence.

Charles VIII developed a keen interest in Italy with his kingdom at peace. In 1481, the Angevin inheritance, including the claims to the crowns of Naples and Jerusalem, passed to Charles.  Influenced by companions and tutors, the new king showed a renewed interest in the Neapolitan throne.  Yet, Charles VIII's ambitions extended beyond Naples, encompassing Sicily and even the title of Jerusalem, along with plans to conquer southern Italy. They were part of a broader strategy to challenge the Turks and Mamluks in the Mediterranean.  Charles aimed to create a French empire that spanned all of Christendom, building upon the realm established by his father, Louis XI.

Ludovico Sforza, aiming to become the Duke of Milan, considered eliminating his young nephew, whom he had been guarding since 1480. He believed he could use Charles VIII of France as a potent counterweight against his Italian adversaries.  Ludovico's emphasis on French involvement may have been more about the threat of assistance rather than its concrete realization. 

When King Ferrante died in January 1494, he was succeeded by his son Alfonso, Duke of Calabria.    At the time, the alliance between Naples and the papacy seemed intact on the surface. However, behind the scenes, Pope Alexander VI navigated a delicate balance between maintaining influence over Naples and showing friendliness to France.  Pope Alexander adopted a strategy by insisting that he would only grant the kingdom of Naples to Charles once the French king's and his rivals' legal rights had been thoroughly investigated. 

Charles, influenced by former Angevin clients in Naples and Ludovico's promises, decided to pursue the expedition. Charles meticulously studied the military aspects, including strength, weaponry, routes, and financial support. The death of Ferrante in 1494 and support for his successor, Alfonso II, from Pope Alexander VI fueled Charles’s decision. Concerned about an Aragonese coalition, Ludovico offered troops and money to Charles to conquer Naples.

Amidst the diplomatic and military activities, significant economic changes were underway. In 1487, the Portuguese reached the Cape of Good Hope, opening new routes for profitable imports from the Far East. In 1492, Columbus, representing Spain, discovered the New World, initially believing it to be eastern Asia.

These discoveries challenged the traditional Mediterranean route controlled by the Turks, raising the prices of many goods. The idea of the Crusades became entangled with the desire to establish a shorter, less costly commercial route than the oceanic one. Economic competition intensified between the rising power of the Habsburgs, who possessed the wealthy Netherlands, and the French economy. French leaders, enticed by the potential wealth in Italy, sought to capitalize on their monarch's military strength. 

Italy was perceived as the most civilized region in Europe, encompassing culture, arts, economic wealth, technological advances, and diplomatic methods. Controlling Italy equated to controlling Europe, and France, confident in its renewed influence, aimed to capitalize on the instability in Italy, bypassing Louis XI's prudent policy of arbitration.

Charles heavily taxed his kingdom to fund the expedition, assembling an army of 40,000 men, the most potent artillery in Europe, and a fleet of over 100 ships. Charles declared his intention to exercise his rights over the Kingdom of Naples.

On March 13, 1494, in Lyons, Charles VIII assumed the title of King of Jerusalem and Sicily. Subsequently, on September 3, the French army crossed the border between the Dauphiné and Piedmont, marking a significant turning point in European history. 

Ludovico, who had initially supported Charles and facilitated French access to the port of Genoa, now grappled with the unexpected deployment of the full might of the French crown. He had anticipated a moderate French force and had yet to foresee Charles leading the troops personally.  Italian miscalculations led them to think French intervention would be temporary. Ludovico's reasoning reflected this, as he sought to manipulate the situation by being proclaimed Duke of Milan two months after the French entered Italy and his nephew's death.


The initial resistance against the French invasion in Italy focused on the strategic importance of achieving a naval victory off Genoa to block French access and prevent the landing of unfamiliar field and siege artillery. Alfonso II's attempts, through his brother Federigo, to establish a presence on the Genoese coast failed, leaving the way clear for the advancing French army. By September 1494, the French forces, including the formidable Swiss infantry and impressive war machines, were steadily progressing southward.

Guicciardini noted that the strength of the French army lay not only in its size but also in the quality of its troops. The disciplined and tactically effective French soldiers stood in contrast to the reputed fickleness and lack of commitment among Italian troops led by mercenary captains.

Charles chose to take a western path through Italy. Gilbert de Montpensier led the advance guard over the mountains towards Tuscany, followed by Charles. Piero de Medici, son of Lorenzo de Medici, seeking to consolidate his authority, left Florence to negotiate with Charles. On October 30, Piero agreed to surrender Sarzana, Pietrasanta, Pisa, and Livorno for the duration of the Neapolitan expedition despite the lack of authority from the republican councils. We’ll examine the fallout of this decision in an upcoming episode.

Upon entering Pisa, recently occupied by French troops, Charles was enthusiastically received. Pisans, seeking liberation from Florentine control, interpreted Charles's consent as a promise to safeguard their independence. This move inadvertently weakened Piero de Medici's position in Florence, leading to his forced departure.

As Charles entered Florence triumphantly, negotiations unfolded. Florence accepted the temporary loss of fortresses, including Pisa. The agreement, signed on November 25, formalized Florence under Charles's protection, restoring merchants' privileges in France. Charles left Florence on November 28, continuing his journey southwards. 

As the French forces moved into the Papal States, the pope was in a precarious situation. The situation reached a turning point when Charles entered Rome. His arrival was marked by a show of military might, and he took up residence in the Palazzo San Marco. Despite initial reluctance, Alexander VI eventually agreed to meet with Charles, leading to an agreement that addressed several key demands. Charles secured the release of the captive Turkish prince Djem, aligning with the overarching crusade narrative behind his expedition.  But most of all, the pope promised the crown of Naples to Charles. 

With the French advancing towards Rome, Ferrandino, Alphonso II’s son, was unable to resist their approach and retreated with his troops. After winter passed, preparations were made for the final assault on Naples. Alfonso II of Naples, seemingly acknowledging the futility of resistance, abdicated the crown. He passed it on to his son and retreated to Sicily, spending his remaining days in a convent.

In late January, Charles encountered minimal resistance as the territories along his route to Naples remained relatively passive. As Charles moved southward, instances of ruthless reprisals marked the campaign. Such brutal actions served as a deterrent, discouraging other regions from resisting the French onslaught.  The French army's rapid advancement and internal dissent among Neapolitan commanders led to the surrender of critical towns like Capua.  On February 24, 1495, Charles VIII triumphantly entered Naples.


Although Charles' entry into Naples seemed triumphant, his position was not as secure as it appeared. The vastness of the Kingdom of Naples posed challenges, and attempts to persuade Ferrandino and his uncle Federigo to relinquish their claims to royal status were politely refused. Charles underestimated the residual loyalty to Ferrandino and the growing concern of northern Italian powers that his presence was causing more trouble than peace.

During the winter, Charles was keenly aware of diplomatic activities aimed at forming a coalition against him. The driving force behind this coalition was King Ferdinand of Aragon (of Ferdinand and Isabella fame), who, alarmed by events in Italy, initiated talks for an anti-French alliance with Venice. Simultaneously, he bolstered his military presence in Sicily. The situation escalated when the French invasion began to threaten the pope directly. Initially neutral, Ferdinand demanded in January 1495 that Charles return Ostia to the pope.

Ferdinand also engaged in negotiations with Emperor Maximilian for family marriages. He exploited Maximilian's resentment for Charles's successes in Italy, leading Maximilian to overcome his traditional hostility towards Venice. Venice, already fostering Ludovico's detachment from France, joined the growing alliance against the French threat.  In early March 1495, Milanese ambassadors and imperial and Spanish envoys converged in Venice for the final stages of creating the League of Venice. 

With the League looming, the French considered their departure from Italy as they discussed Charles's return to France. Charles lingered in Naples for an additional six weeks, indulging in the pleasures of the Neapolitan spring. While Charles displayed goodwill towards his new subjects, French arrogance, and condescension hurt the pride of the Neapolitan nobility. French nobles focused on turning their privileges into cash and intended to avoid settling or establishing lasting connections in the kingdom, causing disenchantment among the Neapolitans.

Charles formally presented himself as sovereign to the people on May 12, making a ceremonial entry into the city. Despite the grandeur, it was not a coronation, as Charles needed papal investiture.  Charles left the kingdom on May 20, 1495, never to return.

Charles VIII left Naples with some troops, leaving a significant force under Gilbert de Montpensier in Italy. There were discussions about Charles returning by sea, but he continued his journey northwards due to a lack of ships and a desire to avoid appearing fearful of the League. 

Charles entered Rome peacefully on June 1, staying only briefly.  By June 13, Charles had reached Siena. Florentine envoys urged him to fulfill promises to restore Pisa and other fortresses. Charles faced a dilemma between honoring his word to the Florentines and heeding advice to control Pisa and Livorno strategically for communication with Naples.  Leaving Pisa on June 22, Charles informed the Florentines that a final decision would come after safely reaching Asti. The French monarch aimed to join forces with Louis II, Duke of Orléans, in Piedmont, north-western Italy.

At the same time, the Venetians and their allies had mobilized forces, and a significant army awaited at  Fornovo di Taro near Parma. The Venetians were divided on the decision to confront the French directly. Some advocated attacking the French rear guard to seize their loot, while others expressed concerns about the risks. They had engaged the services of  Francesco Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, to command the League army.

Charles, sensing the growing strength of the opposing forces and lacking immediate reinforcements, attempted to sway the undecided factions in Parma. When this effort failed, he sought free passage back to France, but the Venetians insisted on the restoration of all conquered territories. Facing a shortage of provisions, Charles decided to offer battle on July 6. The French army of around 10,000, including Swiss troops, confronted a formidable force of 20,000 Venetians and Mantuans. 

Gonzaga devised a battle plan involving dividing his forces into nine lines. The strategy aimed to distract the first and middle groups of the French with two lines while outflanking the rear. The League’s ultimate goal was the destruction of the French army.

The League army positioned itself on the right side of the Taro River, while the French opted for the left bank. Charles VIII organized his forces into distinct battle groups.  He strategically placed his artillery in front of the first line and on the side of the Taro, safeguarding the second line. 

The French initiated the battle with an artillery bombardment, aiming to inflict maximum casualties. Subsequently, they charged with heavy cavalry, quickly disrupting and scattering the disorganized Italian ranks in minutes. Interestingly, the artillery on both sides proved relatively ineffective, with fewer than ten men estimated to have been killed by cannon fire among the French and Italian casualties. However, the psychological impact of the French guns left a lasting impression.

After an intense one-hour engagement, marked by fierce fighting and putting the king in significant jeopardy, the Italians eventually retreated across the river, allowing the French to regroup and resume their march. Despite both sides laying claim to victory, the French suffered losses, including the abandonment of their baggage containing over 300,000 ducats' worth of booty, ultimately withdrawing from the battlefield. On the other hand, while inflicting severe casualties, the Italians failed to halt the French advance. Notably, the battle predominantly featured heavy cavalry, with the Italians not effectively leveraging their numerical superiority.

Following the Battle of Fornovo, the French moved methodically, with the league’s army trailing behind, both sides avoiding a second confrontation.  Charles marched into Lombardy before returning to France. 

After Charles’s departure, Ferrandino's return to Naples was aided by Spanish troops and a popular uprising. Despite these successes, the French still held parts of Naples, leading to a civil war. Venetian reinforcements tipped the scales in favor of the League, leading to the French surrender in July 1496 and the gradual retreat of French forces.

The French invasion of Italy in 1494-96 marked a pivotal turning point, significantly impacting Italy's political landscape and transforming its once serene state into a battleground for foreign armies. The broader implications of these events included international interest in Italian affairs and concerns about the effectiveness of traditional Italian military customs against evolving French and Spanish tactics. Little did the Italians of 1496 anticipate the decades of warfare ahead, shaping the course of Italian history.  However, the French invasion also created broader contact between Italian humanists and the rest of Europe, helping to spread the ideals of the Italian Renaissance north of the Alps.


In the next episode, we return to Florence to see how the French invasion impacted the city.

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