Solar Storm Predictions, Mars Terraforming, and the Mysteries of Ceres

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Language: en

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Welcome to Astronomy Daily, your source


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for the latest developments in space


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exploration and astronomical


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discoveries. I'm your host, Anna, and


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today we're diving into some fascinating


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stories from across the cosmos. The


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universe never ceases to amaze us, and


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today is no exception. We've got a


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packed episode covering everything from


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activities in our own backyard to


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discoveries that could reshape our


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understanding of distant worlds. First


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up, we'll look at SpaceX's second


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attempt to launch a brand new Falcon 9


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booster after an abort halted its first


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try. This Starlink delivery mission


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represents the fourth new booster


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brought into service by SpaceX this year


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alone, highlighting the company's


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continued expansion of its launch


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capabilities. Then, we'll turn our


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attention to a house-sized visitor


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making a surprisingly close approach to


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Earth. Asteroid 2025 KF will pass


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between our planet and the moon on May


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21st, coming within just


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71,700 m of Earth's surface. While


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there's absolutely no danger to us, it


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provides an interesting opportunity to


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discuss these rocky wanderers and how


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astronomers track them. Our third story


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tackles a critical challenge facing our


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technological civilization, the


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limitations in predicting solar storms.


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Despite significant advances in space


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weather forecasting, scientists are


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still struggling to determine the


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magnetic orientation of incoming solar


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storms until they're practically on our


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doorstep. We'll explore why this matters


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and what's being done to improve our


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early warning


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systems. From there, we'll journey to


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the asteroid belt where exciting new


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research suggests that series, the


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largest object between Mars and Jupiter,


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may be hiding a frozen ocean. And


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finally, we'll examine fresh research


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suggesting that terraforming Mars,


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transforming the red planet to make it


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habitable for Earthlife, might be more


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feasible than we


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thought. So, let's blast off into


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today's cosmic news roundup, starting


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with SpaceX's latest launch attempt.


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SpaceX is making another attempt today


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to launch a brand new Falcon 9 booster


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after an unexpected abort halted


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yesterday's countdown. The new booster


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designated


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B195 was scheduled for liftoff from


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Space Launch Complex 40 at Cape


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Canaveral at 11:19 p.m. Eastern Daylight


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Time, carrying 23 Starlink satellites


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destined for low Earth orbit. Monday's


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launch attempt was automatically aborted


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with just under 2.5 minutes left in the


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countdown. Following the scrub, SpaceX


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engineers lowered the rocket into a


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horizontal position to address the


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issue. Though the company didn't


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publicly specify what caused the


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automatic abort, they did confirm that


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both the vehicle and its payload


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remained in good condition. By late


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Tuesday afternoon, B1095 was back in its


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vertical position at the launch pad.


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Weather conditions looked extremely


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favorable for the rescheduled launch


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with meteorologists from the US Space


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Force forecasting a 95% chance of


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acceptable conditions during tonight's


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brief launch window. Their only slight


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concern was the possibility of cumulus


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cloud formation that could violate


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launch


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criteria. This mission is particularly


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notable as it marks the fourth time this


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year that SpaceX has brought a brand new


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Falcon 9 booster into service. The


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company currently maintains 18 other


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active boosters in its fleet, though one


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of them, B1072, has only flown once as a


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Falcon Heavyside booster during last


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month's GOU weather satellite launch.


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The Falcon 9's payload fairing contains


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23 Starlink satellites with 13 of them


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specifically equipped for directto cell


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phone communications


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capabilities. This represents an


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important expansion of Starlink service


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offerings beyond traditional satellite


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internet. As with most SpaceX launches


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these days, the plan includes a landing


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attempt for the first stage booster.


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Approximately 8 minutes after liftoff,


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B195 will target a precision touchdown


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on SpaceX's drone ship. Just read the


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instructions stationed in the Atlantic


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Ocean. If successful, this will mark the


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121st landing on this particular vessel


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and contribute to SpaceX's impressive


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tally of 449 booster landings to date.


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The deployment of the Starlink


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satellites is scheduled to occur about


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65 minutes after launch once the second


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stage reaches the proper orbit. These


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new additions will join the growing


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Starlink constellation that now numbers


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in the thousands, providing internet


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coverage to users around the


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globe. Next up, a little warning, but


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there's no need to panic. Our solar


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system is serving up another close


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cosmic encounter this week as


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astronomers have just spotted a


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house-sized asteroid on track to zip


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past Earth tomorrow at an uncomfortably


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close distance. This newly discovered


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space rock designated 2025 KF will pass


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between Earth and the moon on May 21st.


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The asteroid will make its closest


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approach at approximately 1:30 p.m.


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Eastern time, coming within a mere


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71,700 m of our planet. To put that in


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perspective, that's less than one-third


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the distance between Earth and the Moon.


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While that might sound alarmingly close,


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NASA has confirmed that the asteroid


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poses no danger to Earth. During its


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flyby, 2025 KF will be traveling at a


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blistering speed of nearly 26,000 mph


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relative to Earth. Its trajectory will


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take it closest to our planet's south


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polear region before continuing along


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its solar orbit. The asteroid's


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estimated diameter ranges between 32 and


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75 ft, making it roughly the size of a


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modest house. What's particularly


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interesting about this asteroid is how


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recently it was discovered. Astronomers


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at the MAP project in Chile's Adakama


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Desert only spotted it on May 19th, just


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2 days before its close approach. This


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highlights one of the ongoing challenges


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in asteroid detection. Sometimes these


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smaller objects aren't identified until


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they're practically on our doorstep.


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Even if 2025 KF were on a collision


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course with Earth, which it absolutely


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is not, its relatively small size means


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it would likely burn up in our


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atmosphere before reaching the ground.


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According to NASA, objects of this scale


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pose essentially zero threat to people


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on Earth. While close passes like this


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might seem rare, they're actually quite


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common. NASA has cataloged nearly 40,000


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near-Earth asteroids since it began


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systematically monitoring the skies in


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1998. Of those, about 4,700 are


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classified as potentially dangerous


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asteroids. Though scientists at the


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Center for Near-Earth Object Studies


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have reassured us that no asteroid


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capable of causing widespread damage is


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expected to strike Earth in the next


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century. For context, 2025 KF's


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approach, while close, doesn't come


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anywhere near breaking records. The


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closest documented asteroid flyby


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occurred in 2020 when a car-sized


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asteroid passed just


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1,830 m from Earth's surface. That's


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less than the distance from New York to


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Las Vegas. This latest cosmic visitor


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serves as another reminder of the


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dynamic nature of our solar system


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neighborhood and the importance of


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continued asteroid monitoring efforts to


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keep track of our celestial


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surroundings. And another warning today,


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imagine you're preparing for a major


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storm heading your way. But here's the


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catch. Meteorologists can tell you when


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it will arrive, but they won't know how


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severe it will be until it's practically


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on your doorstep. That's essentially the


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challenge scientists face when it comes


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to predicting solar storms. And it's a


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problem with potentially massive


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implications for our technology


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dependent world. We've made remarkable


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progress in understanding space weather


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over the years. Scientists can now spot


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solar storm eruptions at their source,


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track their journey through space, and


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estimate when they'll reach Earth,


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sometimes with up to 24 hours of


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advanced notice. But there's one crucial


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piece of information that remains


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frustratingly elusive until the very


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last moments. The orientation of the


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storm's magnetic field known as the BZ


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component. When a coral mass ejection or


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CME blasts from the sun, it carries


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along plasma and magnetic fields. The


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orientation of these magnetic fields


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determines how strongly they'll interact


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with Earth's own magnetic shield. A


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southward oriented BZ connects more


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easily with Earth's field, allowing


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solar energy to pour in, which can


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supercharge auroras at best or at worst


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disrupt satellites, radio


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communications, power grids, and GPS


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systems. A northward oriented BZ,


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meanwhile, might pass with minimal


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impact. The problem is that scientists


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currently can't determine this critical


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orientation until the storm is measured


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at what's called


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Lraange.1 or L1, a position about a


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million miles from Earth in the


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direction of the sun. At that point, we


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have just one or two hours of warning


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before potential impacts occur.


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Solar physicist Valentine Martinez Pai


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puts it plainly, "We need to start


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predicting what BZ is going to be as


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soon as the CME has occurred, not when


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we measure it at L1, where we only have


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one or two hours warning." What makes


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this particularly concerning is that our


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vulnerability to space weather is


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actually increasing. The sun itself


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isn't changing its behavior. It's been


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firing off solar storms for billions of


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years. What's changed is our reliance on


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the very technologies most susceptible


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to these solar


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disruptions. Most of our current


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monitoring comes from a single vantage


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point spacecraft positioned at that L1


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point I mentioned. These missions like


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NASA's ACE and Discover satellites can


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detect solar wind properties and measure


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the allimportant BZ component, but only


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when the storm is already nearly upon


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us. To truly forecast the strength of a


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solar storm before it hits, we need


00:09:51.200 --> 00:09:53.150
earlier measurements from multiple


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angles. Ideally, scientists would


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position satellites at various Lraange


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points around the sunear system to


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observe these magnetic structures from


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different perspectives while they're


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still developing. According to Martinez


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Ple, the models are there, so we know


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the equation we have to solve, but we


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don't have good data. He predicts it


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could take about 50 years for space


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weather forecasting to reach the same


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accuracy and predictability as Earth


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weather predictions, assuming we make


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the necessary investments. But waiting


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half a century might be too late. While


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extreme solar storms like the famous


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Carrington event of 1859 are rare, they


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do happen. If a similar event struck


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today, it could cause trillions in


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damage globally by disabling satellites,


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knocking out power grids for weeks or


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months, and severely disrupting


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communications and


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aviation. We've already had at least one


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near miss in recent memory. In July


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2012, the sun fired off a colossal CME


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that would have caused devastating


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impacts, except it missed Earth's


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orbital position by just one week. As


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one researcher put it, if that eruption


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had happened just a week earlier, we


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would still be picking up the pieces


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technologically a year later. The stakes


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are high, and the scientific community


00:11:10.000 --> 00:11:11.990
is increasingly aware that expanding our


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space weather monitoring capabilities


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isn't just about scientific curiosity.


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It's about protecting our modern


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technological infrastructure from one of


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nature's most powerful phenomena.


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Looking toward the future, several


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promising developments may significantly


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advance our ability to predict and


00:11:28.560 --> 00:11:31.110
prepare for solar storms. One of the


00:11:31.120 --> 00:11:32.790
most anticipated projects is the


00:11:32.800 --> 00:11:35.350
European Space Ay's Vigil mission


00:11:35.360 --> 00:11:38.389
scheduled to launch in 2031. Vigil


00:11:38.399 --> 00:11:40.150
represents a major breakthrough in our


00:11:40.160 --> 00:11:42.150
solar monitoring capabilities because of


00:11:42.160 --> 00:11:44.949
its unique vantage point. Unlike our


00:11:44.959 --> 00:11:46.310
current observatories that sit at


00:11:46.320 --> 00:11:47.910
Lraange Point, one directly between


00:11:47.920 --> 00:11:50.150
Earth and the Sun, Vigil will position


00:11:50.160 --> 00:11:52.870
itself at Lraange Point 5, a stable


00:11:52.880 --> 00:11:54.790
orbital location that trails Earth in


00:11:54.800 --> 00:11:57.509
its orbit around the sun. This sideways


00:11:57.519 --> 00:11:59.670
perspective will allow scientists to


00:11:59.680 --> 00:12:02.310
observe solar eruptions from an entirely


00:12:02.320 --> 00:12:04.710
different angle, providing crucial data


00:12:04.720 --> 00:12:07.190
about the shape, speed, and most


00:12:07.200 --> 00:12:09.590
importantly, the magnetic orientation of


00:12:09.600 --> 00:12:13.670
CMEs before they head our way. From L5,


00:12:13.680 --> 00:12:15.750
Vigil could potentially give us up to a


00:12:15.760 --> 00:12:17.350
one week's advanced warning about


00:12:17.360 --> 00:12:19.829
incoming solar storms and their magnetic


00:12:19.839 --> 00:12:22.150
properties. A massive improvement over


00:12:22.160 --> 00:12:25.509
our current one to 2hour window. As


00:12:25.519 --> 00:12:28.190
Martinez Pillet noted, it's better than


00:12:28.200 --> 00:12:30.230
nothing. But the vision for


00:12:30.240 --> 00:12:32.069
comprehensive space weather forecasting


00:12:32.079 --> 00:12:34.790
extends well beyond a single satellite.


00:12:34.800 --> 00:12:36.550
The ideal monitoring system would


00:12:36.560 --> 00:12:38.710
include spacecraft stationed at multiple


00:12:38.720 --> 00:12:44.069
lraange points L1, L3, L4, and L5,


00:12:44.079 --> 00:12:45.990
creating a network of sentinels watching


00:12:46.000 --> 00:12:48.470
the sun from all angles. This


00:12:48.480 --> 00:12:50.069
distributed approach would provide


00:12:50.079 --> 00:12:52.389
continuous observation of solar activity


00:12:52.399 --> 00:12:54.230
regardless of which side of the sun is


00:12:54.240 --> 00:12:57.110
facing Earth. While establishing such a


00:12:57.120 --> 00:12:58.790
network would require significant


00:12:58.800 --> 00:13:00.269
international cooperation and


00:13:00.279 --> 00:13:02.629
investment, the technology to build it


00:13:02.639 --> 00:13:04.310
exists today.


00:13:04.320 --> 00:13:06.629
What's lacking is the prioritization and


00:13:06.639 --> 00:13:09.110
funding that matches the actual risk


00:13:09.120 --> 00:13:11.550
these solar events pose to our global


00:13:11.560 --> 00:13:13.750
infrastructure. The vulnerability of our


00:13:13.760 --> 00:13:15.430
modern world to severe space weather


00:13:15.440 --> 00:13:17.910
can't be overstated. A direct hit from a


00:13:17.920 --> 00:13:19.750
Carrington level event could disable


00:13:19.760 --> 00:13:21.509
satellites controlling everything from


00:13:21.519 --> 00:13:23.870
GPS navigation to


00:13:23.880 --> 00:13:25.910
telecommunications. Power grids across


00:13:25.920 --> 00:13:27.350
continents could collapse as


00:13:27.360 --> 00:13:29.110
geomagnetically induced currents


00:13:29.120 --> 00:13:31.350
overwhelm transformers.


00:13:31.360 --> 00:13:33.269
Air travel would be disrupted as both


00:13:33.279 --> 00:13:35.389
communications and navigation systems


00:13:35.399 --> 00:13:38.069
fail. Banking systems, internet


00:13:38.079 --> 00:13:40.310
infrastructure, and essential services


00:13:40.320 --> 00:13:42.710
all depend on technologies susceptible


00:13:42.720 --> 00:13:45.509
to space weather effects. The economic


00:13:45.519 --> 00:13:47.509
impact of such an event has been


00:13:47.519 --> 00:13:49.829
estimated in the trillions of dollars,


00:13:49.839 --> 00:13:51.670
potentially exceeding the damage from


00:13:51.680 --> 00:13:53.910
the most severe natural disasters or


00:13:53.920 --> 00:13:56.230
pandemics. Unlike earthquakes or


00:13:56.240 --> 00:13:58.550
hurricanes that affect specific regions,


00:13:58.560 --> 00:14:00.790
a major solar storm would impact entire


00:14:00.800 --> 00:14:02.189
hemispheres


00:14:02.199 --> 00:14:04.310
simultaneously. What makes this risk


00:14:04.320 --> 00:14:06.389
particularly concerning is that our


00:14:06.399 --> 00:14:08.470
historical record of solar activity is


00:14:08.480 --> 00:14:11.110
relatively short. The Carrington event


00:14:11.120 --> 00:14:13.670
of 1859 remains our benchmark for


00:14:13.680 --> 00:14:16.150
extreme solar storms, but the sun has


00:14:16.160 --> 00:14:17.990
likely produced even more powerful


00:14:18.000 --> 00:14:21.269
eruptions over its billions of years. We


00:14:21.279 --> 00:14:23.990
simply don't know how bad it could get.


00:14:24.000 --> 00:14:25.590
Space weather scientists frequently


00:14:25.600 --> 00:14:27.670
remind us that the question isn't if


00:14:27.680 --> 00:14:29.590
another extreme solar storm will hit


00:14:29.600 --> 00:14:32.310
Earth, but when. The probability of a


00:14:32.320 --> 00:14:34.230
Carrington level event occurring in the


00:14:34.240 --> 00:14:36.389
next decade is estimated between 1 and


00:14:36.399 --> 00:14:38.949
2%. While the chance of one hitting in


00:14:38.959 --> 00:14:41.269
the next century approaches certainty,


00:14:41.279 --> 00:14:42.790
these aren't comfortable odds when


00:14:42.800 --> 00:14:44.750
weighed against the potential


00:14:44.760 --> 00:14:46.870
consequences. The good news is that with


00:14:46.880 --> 00:14:48.550
proper monitoring and warning systems,


00:14:48.560 --> 00:14:50.389
we could take protective measures.


00:14:50.399 --> 00:14:52.710
Satellites could be put into safe modes.


00:14:52.720 --> 00:14:54.470
Power grid operators could implement


00:14:54.480 --> 00:14:56.550
load balancing to prevent cascading


00:14:56.560 --> 00:14:58.870
failures and critical systems could be


00:14:58.880 --> 00:15:01.430
temporarily isolated or hardened against


00:15:01.440 --> 00:15:03.750
electromagnetic effects. But these


00:15:03.760 --> 00:15:05.990
mitigations depend entirely on having


00:15:06.000 --> 00:15:08.389
adequate warning time. Precisely what


00:15:08.399 --> 00:15:10.790
current systems can't provide. As we


00:15:10.800 --> 00:15:12.590
continue developing our technological


00:15:12.600 --> 00:15:14.629
civilization, expanding our space


00:15:14.639 --> 00:15:16.790
weather forecasting capabilities isn't


00:15:16.800 --> 00:15:18.949
just prudent. It's essential for


00:15:18.959 --> 00:15:20.470
protecting the infrastructure that


00:15:20.480 --> 00:15:22.509
underpins modern


00:15:22.519 --> 00:15:25.030
society. Moving on, let's take a look at


00:15:25.040 --> 00:15:26.790
a secret that's been uncovered in our


00:15:26.800 --> 00:15:29.269
own backyard. Tucked between Mars and


00:15:29.279 --> 00:15:31.590
Jupiter, the asteroid belt's largest


00:15:31.600 --> 00:15:33.670
resident, has been hiding a fascinating


00:15:33.680 --> 00:15:36.629
secret. Series, a dwarf planet first


00:15:36.639 --> 00:15:39.670
discovered in 1801, may be far more


00:15:39.680 --> 00:15:41.829
watery than scientists have believed for


00:15:41.839 --> 00:15:44.069
centuries. According to groundbreaking


00:15:44.079 --> 00:15:45.990
research from Purdue University and


00:15:46.000 --> 00:15:48.470
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, this


00:15:48.480 --> 00:15:51.030
seemingly dry, cratered world might


00:15:51.040 --> 00:15:53.110
actually be a frozen ocean planet with


00:15:53.120 --> 00:15:55.430
an icerich composition that rewrites our


00:15:55.440 --> 00:15:57.550
understanding of its formation and


00:15:57.560 --> 00:16:00.150
evolution. For decades, the scientific


00:16:00.160 --> 00:16:01.749
consensus held that series was


00:16:01.759 --> 00:16:04.150
predominantly rocky with ice making up


00:16:04.160 --> 00:16:07.509
less than 30% of its mass. But this new


00:16:07.519 --> 00:16:09.829
study published in Nature Astronomy


00:16:09.839 --> 00:16:11.430
proposes a dramatically different


00:16:11.440 --> 00:16:14.150
picture, suggesting that up to 90% of


00:16:14.160 --> 00:16:16.829
Siri's outer layers could be composed of


00:16:16.839 --> 00:16:19.430
ice. We think that there's lots of water


00:16:19.440 --> 00:16:21.829
ice near surface and that it gets


00:16:21.839 --> 00:16:23.990
gradually less icy as you go deeper and


00:16:24.000 --> 00:16:26.069
deeper, explained assistant professor


00:16:26.079 --> 00:16:28.550
Mike Sor, who co-led the research with


00:16:28.560 --> 00:16:31.670
PhD student Ian Pamello. Their computer


00:16:31.680 --> 00:16:34.389
simulations tested how series's surface


00:16:34.399 --> 00:16:36.790
has evolved over billions of years,


00:16:36.800 --> 00:16:38.710
revealing unexpected findings about the


00:16:38.720 --> 00:16:41.670
dwarf planet's composition and behavior.


00:16:41.680 --> 00:16:43.430
The key insight came from studying


00:16:43.440 --> 00:16:46.150
series craters. Scientists previously


00:16:46.160 --> 00:16:47.990
believed that if seriesir had a high ice


00:16:48.000 --> 00:16:49.910
content, its craters would quickly


00:16:49.920 --> 00:16:52.230
deform, behaving like honey or flowing


00:16:52.240 --> 00:16:54.550
glaciers. Since NASA's Dawn mission


00:16:54.560 --> 00:16:56.310
observed many wellpreserved deep


00:16:56.320 --> 00:16:58.790
craters, researchers initially concluded


00:16:58.800 --> 00:17:01.189
series couldn't be very icy. But the


00:17:01.199 --> 00:17:02.629
Purdue team discovered something


00:17:02.639 --> 00:17:04.870
surprising. When ice is mixed with even


00:17:04.880 --> 00:17:06.870
small amounts of rock, it behaves quite


00:17:06.880 --> 00:17:09.909
differently than pure ice. Even solids


00:17:09.919 --> 00:17:12.470
will flow over long time scales. Pamello


00:17:12.480 --> 00:17:15.350
noted. Ice flows more readily than rock.


00:17:15.360 --> 00:17:17.270
Craters have deep bowls which produce


00:17:17.280 --> 00:17:19.270
high stresses that then relax to a lower


00:17:19.280 --> 00:17:21.350
stress state resulting in a shallower


00:17:21.360 --> 00:17:24.549
bowl via solid state flow. Their models


00:17:24.559 --> 00:17:26.870
revealed that a gradational crust with


00:17:26.880 --> 00:17:28.630
higher ice concentration near the


00:17:28.640 --> 00:17:30.870
surface gradually decreasing with depth


00:17:30.880 --> 00:17:32.630
could maintain crater shapes for


00:17:32.640 --> 00:17:35.230
billions of years without significant


00:17:35.240 --> 00:17:37.430
deformation. This structure perfectly


00:17:37.440 --> 00:17:39.590
explains what the Dawn mission observed


00:17:39.600 --> 00:17:41.750
during its exploration of series between


00:17:41.760 --> 00:17:45.070
2015 and 2018. The implications are


00:17:45.080 --> 00:17:47.350
profound. Rather than being just another


00:17:47.360 --> 00:17:49.909
large asteroid, series now appears to be


00:17:49.919 --> 00:17:51.669
more similar to the ocean moons of the


00:17:51.679 --> 00:17:53.630
outer solar system like Europa and


00:17:53.640 --> 00:17:56.070
Enceladus, except with a muddier,


00:17:56.080 --> 00:17:59.029
dirtier composition. The key difference


00:17:59.039 --> 00:18:01.430
is that series's ocean has likely


00:18:01.440 --> 00:18:03.830
completely frozen over time, preserving


00:18:03.840 --> 00:18:06.350
a record of its aquatic past in its icy


00:18:06.360 --> 00:18:08.789
shell. Perhaps most exciting is what


00:18:08.799 --> 00:18:11.350
this means for future exploration. At


00:18:11.360 --> 00:18:15.029
roughly 950 km in diameter, series is


00:18:15.039 --> 00:18:16.549
substantial enough to have developed


00:18:16.559 --> 00:18:18.230
many features of larger planetary


00:18:18.240 --> 00:18:20.789
bodies, including craters, volcanoes,


00:18:20.799 --> 00:18:21.549
and


00:18:21.559 --> 00:18:23.990
landslides. As Sori enthusiastically


00:18:24.000 --> 00:18:26.230
noted, to me, the exciting part of all


00:18:26.240 --> 00:18:27.990
this, if we're right, is that we have a


00:18:28.000 --> 00:18:29.590
frozen ocean world pretty close to


00:18:29.600 --> 00:18:32.070
Earth. Series may be a valuable point of


00:18:32.080 --> 00:18:33.990
comparison for the ocean hosting icy


00:18:34.000 --> 00:18:36.789
moons of the outer solar system.


00:18:36.799 --> 00:18:38.710
series, we think, is therefore the most


00:18:38.720 --> 00:18:41.190
accessible icy world in the universe.


00:18:41.200 --> 00:18:43.029
That makes it a great target for future


00:18:43.039 --> 00:18:45.590
spacecraft missions. Those bright


00:18:45.600 --> 00:18:47.510
enigmatic spots on Siri's surface that


00:18:47.520 --> 00:18:49.270
puzzled astronomers when first observed


00:18:49.280 --> 00:18:51.590
by dawn, they're likely remnants of that


00:18:51.600 --> 00:18:53.990
ancient ocean, materials erupted onto


00:18:54.000 --> 00:18:56.230
the surface after freezing. These


00:18:56.240 --> 00:18:57.590
regions could offer incredible


00:18:57.600 --> 00:18:59.350
opportunities for future missions to


00:18:59.360 --> 00:19:01.110
collect samples from what was once a


00:19:01.120 --> 00:19:03.669
living ocean, all without traveling to


00:19:03.679 --> 00:19:05.710
the far reaches of the outer solar


00:19:05.720 --> 00:19:08.230
system. As we continue mapping water


00:19:08.240 --> 00:19:10.549
resources throughout our solar system,


00:19:10.559 --> 00:19:12.630
series stands out as a potential


00:19:12.640 --> 00:19:14.950
treasure hiding in plain sight. An


00:19:14.960 --> 00:19:16.789
ancient ocean world disguised as a


00:19:16.799 --> 00:19:19.510
humble asteroid waiting just beyond Mars


00:19:19.520 --> 00:19:22.549
for our return. The story of seriesir is


00:19:22.559 --> 00:19:24.549
just one chapter in our solar system's


00:19:24.559 --> 00:19:27.510
surprisingly wet narrative. While Earth


00:19:27.520 --> 00:19:29.270
has long been considered the water world


00:19:29.280 --> 00:19:31.190
of our planetary neighborhood, we're


00:19:31.200 --> 00:19:33.830
discovering that H2O is far more common


00:19:33.840 --> 00:19:36.549
throughout space than we once believed.


00:19:36.559 --> 00:19:38.310
It just takes different forms depending


00:19:38.320 --> 00:19:40.630
on distance from the sun and local


00:19:40.640 --> 00:19:43.110
conditions. Take Europa, one of


00:19:43.120 --> 00:19:46.070
Jupiter's four large Galilean moons.


00:19:46.080 --> 00:19:48.230
This ice covered world harbors an ocean


00:19:48.240 --> 00:19:50.310
containing an estimated 2 to three times


00:19:50.320 --> 00:19:52.510
the volume of all Earth's oceans


00:19:52.520 --> 00:19:55.350
combined. Unlike series frozen waters,


00:19:55.360 --> 00:19:57.669
Europa's subsurface ocean remains liquid


00:19:57.679 --> 00:19:59.909
today, heated by tidal forces from


00:19:59.919 --> 00:20:02.630
Jupiter's massive gravitational pole.


00:20:02.640 --> 00:20:04.950
Its smooth cracked surface betrays the


00:20:04.960 --> 00:20:07.029
movement of liquid water beneath, making


00:20:07.039 --> 00:20:09.430
it one of astrobiologists prime targets


00:20:09.440 --> 00:20:12.390
in the search for extraterrestrial life.


00:20:12.400 --> 00:20:14.630
Saturn's moon Enceladus presents an even


00:20:14.640 --> 00:20:17.270
more dramatic case. Actively venting


00:20:17.280 --> 00:20:19.110
water into space through geysers


00:20:19.120 --> 00:20:21.270
erupting from its south pole. The


00:20:21.280 --> 00:20:23.270
Cassini spacecraft flew directly through


00:20:23.280 --> 00:20:25.510
these plumes, detecting not just water,


00:20:25.520 --> 00:20:27.950
but also salts, ice grains, and organic


00:20:27.960 --> 00:20:30.149
molecules. Even more exciting was the


00:20:30.159 --> 00:20:31.750
discovery of hydrothermal vents on


00:20:31.760 --> 00:20:33.990
Enceladus's ocean floor environments


00:20:34.000 --> 00:20:35.990
that on Earth teamed with life despite


00:20:36.000 --> 00:20:38.549
complete darkness. Ganymede, Jupiter's


00:20:38.559 --> 00:20:40.149
largest moon and the largest in our


00:20:40.159 --> 00:20:42.630
solar system, possesses a subsurface


00:20:42.640 --> 00:20:45.830
ocean estimated to be around 100 km deep


00:20:45.840 --> 00:20:47.669
with several layers of ice and liquid


00:20:47.679 --> 00:20:50.070
water arranged like a cosmic onion.


00:20:50.080 --> 00:20:52.630
Similarly, Kalisto may host an ocean up


00:20:52.640 --> 00:20:55.350
to 150 km thick beneath its heavily


00:20:55.360 --> 00:20:56.350
cratered


00:20:56.360 --> 00:20:59.270
surface. Even Titan, Saturn's haze


00:20:59.280 --> 00:21:01.990
shrouded moon, has a unique water story.


00:21:02.000 --> 00:21:04.149
Its surface features lakes and seas not


00:21:04.159 --> 00:21:05.909
of water but of liquid methane and


00:21:05.919 --> 00:21:08.789
ethane. Yet beneath this alien landscape


00:21:08.799 --> 00:21:11.110
lies a hidden subsurface water ocean


00:21:11.120 --> 00:21:14.390
likely 50 to 100 km deep. Further out


00:21:14.400 --> 00:21:16.310
Neptune's moon Triton shows evidence of


00:21:16.320 --> 00:21:17.909
subsurface liquid water mixed with


00:21:17.919 --> 00:21:20.310
ammonia which acts as antifreeze in the


00:21:20.320 --> 00:21:22.950
frigid outer solar system. Pluto 2 may


00:21:22.960 --> 00:21:26.149
harbor a 100 km thick subsurface ocean


00:21:26.159 --> 00:21:28.070
kept liquid through insulation from gas


00:21:28.080 --> 00:21:29.830
hydrates and internal heat from


00:21:29.840 --> 00:21:32.549
radioactive decay. What makes seriesir


00:21:32.559 --> 00:21:34.270
unique among these worlds is its


00:21:34.280 --> 00:21:36.870
location. While Europa, Enceladus, and


00:21:36.880 --> 00:21:38.789
the others orbit gas giants in the outer


00:21:38.799 --> 00:21:41.029
solar system, series sits relatively


00:21:41.039 --> 00:21:43.110
close to Earth in the asteroid belt.


00:21:43.120 --> 00:21:45.110
This proximity makes it, as Mike Sory


00:21:45.120 --> 00:21:47.510
put it, the most accessible icy world in


00:21:47.520 --> 00:21:50.470
the universe. The widespread presence of


00:21:50.480 --> 00:21:52.390
water throughout our solar system,


00:21:52.400 --> 00:21:54.470
reshapes our understanding of planetary


00:21:54.480 --> 00:21:57.270
formation and evolution. It suggests


00:21:57.280 --> 00:21:58.870
water- richch bodies may have been


00:21:58.880 --> 00:22:01.110
common building blocks of planets, and


00:22:01.120 --> 00:22:03.029
raises intriguing questions about where


00:22:03.039 --> 00:22:05.830
Earth's own water came from. Did comets,


00:22:05.840 --> 00:22:07.830
asteroids, or series-like objects


00:22:07.840 --> 00:22:10.310
deliver it? More importantly, these


00:22:10.320 --> 00:22:12.390
discoveries expand our conception of


00:22:12.400 --> 00:22:15.110
habitable environments. If liquid water


00:22:15.120 --> 00:22:16.950
can exist in so many places beyond


00:22:16.960 --> 00:22:19.350
Earth, from the asteroid belt to the


00:22:19.360 --> 00:22:21.270
frigid outer reaches of our solar


00:22:21.280 --> 00:22:23.590
system, perhaps life too might be more


00:22:23.600 --> 00:22:26.270
adaptable and widespread than we've


00:22:26.280 --> 00:22:29.110
imagined. Finally, today, a topic our


00:22:29.120 --> 00:22:30.630
listeners raise with us on a regular


00:22:30.640 --> 00:22:34.149
basis. Mars, the red planet that has


00:22:34.159 --> 00:22:35.789
captivated human imagination for


00:22:35.799 --> 00:22:38.230
centuries, might be closer to becoming a


00:22:38.240 --> 00:22:39.750
second home for humanity than we


00:22:39.760 --> 00:22:40.990
previously


00:22:41.000 --> 00:22:43.190
thought. New research published in


00:22:43.200 --> 00:22:44.549
Nature Astronomy suggests that


00:22:44.559 --> 00:22:47.190
terraforming Mars, transforming it into


00:22:47.200 --> 00:22:49.110
a habitable world, could be more


00:22:49.120 --> 00:22:51.990
feasible than earlier studies indicated.


00:22:52.000 --> 00:22:54.070
Led by Erica Alden de Benedictus from


00:22:54.080 --> 00:22:56.310
Pioneer Research Labs, the study


00:22:56.320 --> 00:22:58.149
highlights three key advances that have


00:22:58.159 --> 00:23:00.870
changed the terraforming conversation.


00:23:00.880 --> 00:23:02.549
dramatically improved climate modeling


00:23:02.559 --> 00:23:04.390
and engineering techniques,


00:23:04.400 --> 00:23:05.830
breakthroughs in understanding


00:23:05.840 --> 00:23:08.110
extremilic organisms and synthetic


00:23:08.120 --> 00:23:10.630
biology, and significant developments in


00:23:10.640 --> 00:23:13.669
space technology, particularly SP X's


00:23:13.679 --> 00:23:15.990
Starship, which could potentially reduce


00:23:16.000 --> 00:23:18.510
payload costs to Mars by a factor of


00:23:18.520 --> 00:23:20.870
1,000. What's particularly interesting


00:23:20.880 --> 00:23:23.110
is that comprehensive research on Mars


00:23:23.120 --> 00:23:25.430
terraforming feasibility hadn't been


00:23:25.440 --> 00:23:28.549
substantially updated since 1991.


00:23:28.559 --> 00:23:30.789
This new paper outlines a three-phase


00:23:30.799 --> 00:23:32.230
approach that could potentially


00:23:32.240 --> 00:23:35.190
transform the red planet over time. In


00:23:35.200 --> 00:23:36.710
the short term, we now know Mars


00:23:36.720 --> 00:23:38.549
possesses sufficient ice reserves and


00:23:38.559 --> 00:23:40.390
soil nutrients to potentially support


00:23:40.400 --> 00:23:42.310
life if temperatures could rise by at


00:23:42.320 --> 00:23:45.830
least 30° C. New warming methods look


00:23:45.840 --> 00:23:47.669
promising, including solar mirrors,


00:23:47.679 --> 00:23:49.590
engineered aerosols, and surface


00:23:49.600 --> 00:23:51.430
modifications using materials like


00:23:51.440 --> 00:23:53.750
silica aerogels. These appear more


00:23:53.760 --> 00:23:55.990
efficient than earlier proposals and


00:23:56.000 --> 00:23:57.590
combined with our increased launch


00:23:57.600 --> 00:24:00.070
capacity could potentially warm Mars


00:24:00.080 --> 00:24:01.510
enough within this century to permit


00:24:01.520 --> 00:24:03.510
liquid water and support the first


00:24:03.520 --> 00:24:06.470
extremophilic organisms. The midto


00:24:06.480 --> 00:24:07.750
long-term vision would involve


00:24:07.760 --> 00:24:09.750
introducing pioneer species engineered


00:24:09.760 --> 00:24:12.230
to withstand Mars's unique challenges.


00:24:12.240 --> 00:24:15.190
Low pressure toxic oxyclorine salts,


00:24:15.200 --> 00:24:17.269
extreme temperature swings, intense


00:24:17.279 --> 00:24:20.070
radiation, and scarce water. These


00:24:20.080 --> 00:24:21.590
hearty organisms would initiate


00:24:21.600 --> 00:24:23.750
ecological succession, gradually


00:24:23.760 --> 00:24:25.830
transforming the planet's chemistry and


00:24:25.840 --> 00:24:28.390
potentially beginning oxygen production.


00:24:28.400 --> 00:24:30.149
While initial human habitation would


00:24:30.159 --> 00:24:32.230
still require protective environments,


00:24:32.240 --> 00:24:34.149
the ultimate goal could be creating a


00:24:34.159 --> 00:24:36.630
100 millibar oxygen atmosphere


00:24:36.640 --> 00:24:38.390
sufficient for humans to breathe outside


00:24:38.400 --> 00:24:41.110
without pressure suits. Most remarkably,


00:24:41.120 --> 00:24:42.710
this atmosphere could be created


00:24:42.720 --> 00:24:44.870
entirely from resources already present


00:24:44.880 --> 00:24:47.269
on Mars. This transformation would take


00:24:47.279 --> 00:24:49.269
hundreds of years, but the research


00:24:49.279 --> 00:24:51.590
suggests a sustainable ecologically


00:24:51.600 --> 00:24:54.149
minded approach. Rather than diverting


00:24:54.159 --> 00:24:55.669
attention from Earth's environmental


00:24:55.679 --> 00:24:57.909
challenges, Mars terraforming research


00:24:57.919 --> 00:24:59.590
could provide valuable insights for


00:24:59.600 --> 00:25:02.310
planetary sustainability. Technologies


00:25:02.320 --> 00:25:04.390
developed for Mars, like desiccation


00:25:04.400 --> 00:25:06.870
resistant crops and improved ecosystem


00:25:06.880 --> 00:25:09.110
modeling, could benefit our home planet


00:25:09.120 --> 00:25:11.830
as well. Of course, ethical questions


00:25:11.840 --> 00:25:14.149
abound, particularly regarding potential


00:25:14.159 --> 00:25:16.390
indigenous Martian life, which should be


00:25:16.400 --> 00:25:18.230
thoroughly investigated before any


00:25:18.240 --> 00:25:20.870
large-scale terraforming begins. The


00:25:20.880 --> 00:25:22.789
researchers emphasize that Mars could


00:25:22.799 --> 00:25:24.789
serve as a crucial test bed for proving


00:25:24.799 --> 00:25:26.630
scientific theories about planetary


00:25:26.640 --> 00:25:28.789
engineering. Knowledge we might someday


00:25:28.799 --> 00:25:30.789
need to preserve Earth's habitability in


00:25:30.799 --> 00:25:33.430
the face of our own climate crisis.


00:25:33.440 --> 00:25:35.470
While full transformation would take


00:25:35.480 --> 00:25:37.750
centuries, the research suggests the


00:25:37.760 --> 00:25:39.750
first steps could begin sooner than many


00:25:39.760 --> 00:25:41.909
have assumed, marking the beginning of


00:25:41.919 --> 00:25:44.310
humanity's potential expansion beyond


00:25:44.320 --> 00:25:46.830
the blue boundaries of our home


00:25:46.840 --> 00:25:49.110
world. Well, what a journey through our


00:25:49.120 --> 00:25:50.950
cosmic neighborhood we've had today.


00:25:50.960 --> 00:25:52.789
From launch pads at Cape Canaveral to


00:25:52.799 --> 00:25:55.110
the distant possibility of a green Mars,


00:25:55.120 --> 00:25:57.510
our solar system continues to reveal its


00:25:57.520 --> 00:25:59.990
secrets and possibilities. Each of these


00:26:00.000 --> 00:26:01.909
stories represents another piece in our


00:26:01.919 --> 00:26:03.510
expanding understanding of the solar


00:26:03.520 --> 00:26:05.430
system. A picture that grows more


00:26:05.440 --> 00:26:07.750
detailed, more surprising, and more


00:26:07.760 --> 00:26:10.950
promising with each new discovery. This


00:26:10.960 --> 00:26:13.909
has been Astronomy Daily. I'm Anna, and


00:26:13.919 --> 00:26:15.590
I hope you'll join me again tomorrow for


00:26:15.600 --> 00:26:18.070
our next journey through the cosmos. If


00:26:18.080 --> 00:26:19.669
you'd like to stay uptodate with all the


00:26:19.679 --> 00:26:22.070
latest space and astronomy news, visit


00:26:22.080 --> 00:26:23.549
our website at


00:26:23.559 --> 00:26:25.590
astronomydaily.io, where our constantly


00:26:25.600 --> 00:26:27.190
updating newsfeed brings you the


00:26:27.200 --> 00:26:29.350
universe in real time. Subscribe to the


00:26:29.360 --> 00:26:31.830
podcast on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and


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00:26:33.520 --> 00:26:35.510
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00:26:43.039 --> 00:26:45.750
Tik Tok. Until next time, keep looking


00:26:45.760 --> 00:26:47.669
up. The universe is an amazing place,


00:26:47.679 --> 00:26:49.269
and we're just beginning to understand


00:26:49.279 --> 00:27:00.549
it.


00:27:00.559 --> 00:27:03.250
The stories


00:27:03.260 --> 00:27:07.710
[Music]


00:27:07.720 --> 00:27:11.440
told stories