Artemis II Reaches the Pad, Akatsuki's Final Farewell, and China Cracks the FRB Code

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Anna: Welcome to Astronomy Daily, your source

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for the latest news in space and astronomy.

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I'm Anna.

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Avery: And I'm Avery. We've got an

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absolutely packed show for you today with

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some really exciting developments happening

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across the solar system and beyond.

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Anna: That's right, Avery. NASA's Artemis 2

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mission just reached a major milestone that

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brings us closer to putting humans back on

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the moon. We'll update you on the m

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impressive journey their massive rocket just

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completed.

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Avery: Plus, we're saying goodbye to a spacecraft

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that refused to give up. Japan's

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Akatsuki mission to Venus has officially

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ended after more than a decade of incredible

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science. But not before delivering some

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stunning discoveries.

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Anna: We've also got a fascinating storey about

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China's fast telescope solving a

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cosmic mystery that's had astronomers

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scratching their heads for years. Fast

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radio bursts, anyone?

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Avery: Speaking of mysteries, there's some

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concerning news about a Spanish military

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satell. We'll explore what might be the most

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comprehensive year for space science in

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recent memory, with missions heading to the

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moon, Mars and beyond.

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Anna: And finally, astronomers have been taking a,

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uh, closer look at dwarf galaxies. And what

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they found is changing our understanding of

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supermassive black holes across the universe.

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Avery: It's going to be a great show, so let's get

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into it.

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Anna: All right, Avery. Let's kick things off with

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some really exciting news from NASA's Kennedy

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Space Centre in Florida. The Artemis 2

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mission just hit a huge milestone.

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Avery: This is big, Anna.

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Anna: Uh.

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Avery: After nearly 12 hours of careful travel,

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NASA's Space Launch System rocket and Orion

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spacecraft finally reached launch pad

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39B this past Saturday evening.

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Anna: And when you say careful travel, you really

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mean it. We're talking about NASA's Crawler

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Transporter 2 moving at a blazing

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maximum speed of just 0.82

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miles per hour.

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Avery: Right. I could literally walk faster than

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that. But when you're moving a massive moon

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rocket, slow and steady definitely wins the

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race. The journey from the vehicle assembly

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building covered about four miles.

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Anna: What I find interesting is that they had to

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make a planned pause. Along the way, the team

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needed to reposition the crew access arm,

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which is essentially a bridge that will

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provide the astronauts access to the Orion

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spacecraft on launch day.

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Avery: That's such a critical piece of

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infrastructure. Now that the rocket's at the

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pad, teams are preparing for what NASA calls

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a wet dress rehearsal, which is targeted for

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no later than February 2nd.

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Anna: Can you explain what that entails for our

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listeners who might not be familiar?

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Avery: Absolutely. During the wet dress rehearsal,

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engineers will load the rocket with its

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cryogenic propellants, super cold fuel

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run through the entire countdown. Sequence

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and then practise safely draining all those

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propellants from the rocket. It's basically a

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full mission simulation without actually

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launching.

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Anna: And this is absolutely essential. Before

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putting a crew on board, NASA wants to make

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sure every system works perfectly.

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Avery: Exactly. Now, they've noted that additional

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wet dress rehearsals might be required to

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ensure the vehicle is completely ready for

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flight. And if needed, they may roll the

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SLS and Orion back to the vehicle assembly

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building for additional work.

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Anna: Let's talk about the crew. This is going to

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be a historic mission.

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Avery: It really is. The Artemis 2 mission

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will send NASA astronauts Reid Wiseman,

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Victor Glover and Christina Koch, along with

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Canadian Space Agency astronaut Jeremy

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Hansen, on approximately 10 day journey

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around the moon and back.

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Anna: And this will be the first crewed lunar

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mission since Apollo 17 in

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1972. We're talking about more

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than 50 years.

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Avery: That's incredible when you think about it.

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And this mission is a crucial stepping stone

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towards landing humans on the moon's surface

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again, which will then help us prepare for

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the ultimate sending astronauts to Mars.

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Anna: The timeline is really coming together. From

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rollout to wet dress rehearsal to launch,

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it's all happening.

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Avery: And every step brings us closer to seeing

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humans venture beyond Earth orbit for the

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first time in over half a century. It's

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an exciting time for space exploration.

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Anna: Moving from the moon to our other planetary

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neighbour.

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We need to talk about the end of an era at

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Venus. Japan's Akatsuki mission

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officially concluded in September 2025

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after an absolutely remarkable journey.

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Avery: This is such a bittersweet storey, Anna. Uh,

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Akatsuki, which was operated by JAXA and

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iss, was Japan's first fully

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successful planetary orbiter. And it went

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through quite an ordeal to get there.

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Anna: Right, because the mission didn't exactly go

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according to plan from the start, did it?

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Avery: Not at all. Akatsuki launched back in 2010

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with the goal of studying Venus's atmosphere,

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but it actually failed to enter Venus orbit

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on its first attempt due to a main engine

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malfunction. So the spacecraft ended up

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drifting around the sun for five years.

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Anna: Five years. That must have been incredibly

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frustrating for the team. But they didn't

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give up.

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Avery: They absolutely didn't. In December 2015,

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JAXA engineers managed a second attempt using

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the spacecraft's smaller thrusters. And this

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time it worked. Akatsuki successfully entered

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orbit around Venus and became the only

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operational spacecraft there at the time.

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Anna: So what kind of work did it accomplish once

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it finally got into position?

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Avery: Well, the spacecraft weighed just over

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1150 pounds and carried five

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imaging instruments plus a six radio system.

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Its orbit was Highly elliptical, ranging from

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about 620 miles at its closest to

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Venus all the way out to

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223,700 miles

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at its farthest point.

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Anna: That's quite a range. I imagine that gave

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them different perspectives on the planet.

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Avery: Exactly. It allowed for both wide angle

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observations and detailed close up studies of

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Venus's thick toxic cloud layers. And

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Akatsuki made some really incredible

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discoveries during its decade of operations.

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Anna: Like what?

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Avery: One of the most striking findings was a, uh,

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giant stationary gravity wave about

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6,200 miles long. It's the

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largest of its kind in the entire solar

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system.

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Anna: That's enormous. What causes something

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like that?

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Avery: These gravity waves appeared as alternating

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light and dark bands in the atmosphere. And

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they're created when air is pushed upward by

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mountainous terrain on Venus's surface.

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What's fascinating is that how even the lower

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surface can influence the upper atmospheric

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layers despite the crushing pressure.

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Anna: Akatsuki, uh, also contributed to

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understanding Venus's super rotation

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phenomenon, right?

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Avery: That's right. Super rotation is this bizarre

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phenomenon where Venus's upper atmosphere

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moves significantly faster than the planet's

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surface rotates. Akatsuki provided evidence

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linking this wind acceleration to vertical

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momentum transfers through waves and

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turbulence.

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Anna: So how did the mission ultimately end?

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Avery: In late April 2024, contact with

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Akatsuki was lost during a period of low

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precision attitude control. Basically, the

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spacecraft's orientation and antenna

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positioning drifted off target. The

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transmitter likely kept working, but the

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radio signal could no longer reach Earth.

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Anna: And despite months of attempts to re

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establish communication, they couldn't get it

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back.

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Avery: Unfortunately not. JAXA

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officially sent the final command to

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terminate the mission on September 18,

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2025, just over 15 years after

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launch. This ensured no uncontrolled signals

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would continue broadcasting from the inactive

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probe.

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Anna: What a legacy though. Despite all the

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setbacks, Akatsuki delivered remarkable

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science about Venus's atmosphere and proved

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that you should never count a mission out.

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Avery: Absolutely. It's a testament to the ingenuity

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and determination of the team. They turned

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what could have been a complete failure into

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a highly successful decade.

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Anna: Long mission from Venus.

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Let's turn our attention to one of the

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biggest mysteries in modern astronomy. Fast

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radio bursts and Avery. Chinese

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astronomers have just made a breakthrough

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that's reshaping our understanding of these

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enigmatic signals.

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Avery: This is really exciting work, Anna. Um, an

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international team using China's FAST

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telescope, that's the 500 metre

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aperture spherical Telescope, also known as

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the China Sky Eye, has uncovered the

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first clear evidence that some fast radio

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burst sources actually originate in binary

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star systems.

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Anna: Okay, so for our listeners who Might not be

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familiar. Can you explain what fast radio

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bursts are?

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Avery: Sure. Fast radio bursts, or

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FRBs, are these incredibly brief

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but energetic pulses of radio waves from

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deep space. We're talking about flashes that

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last less than a thousandth of a second, but

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can release more energy than our sun emits in

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days.

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Anna: That's mind boggling. And most of these are

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one time events, right?

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Avery: Exactly. Most FRBs are one

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off events, which makes them really hard to

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study. But a handful repeat and those

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give astronomers rare opportunities for long

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term observation. That's what made this

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discovery possible.

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Anna: So tell us about this particular burst they

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were studying.

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Avery: The team led by Professor Bing Zhang from the

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University of Hong Kong focus on a repeating

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source called

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FRB2205.29A,

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located about 2.5 billion light years

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away. They monitored it for 17

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months using FAST, which is the world's most

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sensitive instrument for detecting these

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signals.

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Anna: And for most of that time it seemed pretty

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unremarkable.

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Avery: That's what's so interesting. For 17

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months, the signal appeared consistent and

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ordinary. But then near the end of

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2023, something truly exciting

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happened that transformed the entire study.

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Anna: What changed?

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Avery: They detected what they call an RM flare,

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a sudden dramatic change in the rotation

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measure of the radio waves. The rotation

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measure increased by more than a factor of

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100, then rapidly declined over

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two weeks before returning to its previous

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level. Think of rotation measure as

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describing how polarised radio waves twist

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as they pass through magnetic plasma. A

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sudden change like this reveals shifts in the

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environment surrounding the FRB source.

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Anna: And what does that tell us?

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Avery: Uh, well, this flare suggested that the

271
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FRB's environment was suddenly flooded by

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highly magnetised plasma, likely

273
00:11:00.970 --> 00:11:03.770
ejected by a nearby star. It's consistent

274
00:11:03.770 --> 00:11:06.770
with coronal mass ejections, those massive

275
00:11:06.770 --> 00:11:09.130
bursts of stellar material that our sun

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occasionally launches.

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Anna: So that's the smoking gun for a binary

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00:11:13.770 --> 00:11:14.130
system.

279
00:11:14.770 --> 00:11:17.730
Avery: Exactly. By linking this RM flare

280
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to plasma activity from a companion star,

281
00:11:20.530 --> 00:11:23.170
the team provided the strongest evidence yet

282
00:11:23.170 --> 00:11:26.090
that some FRBs arise in binary

283
00:11:26.090 --> 00:11:28.490
systems containing a magnetar, which is a

284
00:11:28.490 --> 00:11:30.610
neutron star with an extremely strong

285
00:11:30.610 --> 00:11:33.440
magnetic field paired with a regular star

286
00:11:33.440 --> 00:11:34.160
like our sun.

287
00:11:34.480 --> 00:11:36.880
Anna: This contradicts the long standing belief

288
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that FRBs come solely from isolated

289
00:11:39.720 --> 00:11:40.960
magnetars, doesn't it?

290
00:11:41.360 --> 00:11:43.800
Avery: It does, and it's a major shift in our

291
00:11:43.800 --> 00:11:46.120
understanding. The findings were published in

292
00:11:46.120 --> 00:11:48.840
the journal Science and mark a real milestone

293
00:11:48.840 --> 00:11:51.360
for astrophysics. The observations were

294
00:11:51.360 --> 00:11:54.000
corroborated by data from Australia's Parkes

295
00:11:54.000 --> 00:11:56.720
telescope, which reinforces the reliability

296
00:11:56.720 --> 00:11:57.680
of these findings.

297
00:11:58.160 --> 00:12:00.320
Anna: Do these results fit into any broader

298
00:12:00.320 --> 00:12:01.680
theories about FRBs?

299
00:12:02.320 --> 00:12:04.960
Avery: Actually, yes. They align with a unified

300
00:12:05.040 --> 00:12:07.640
model recently proposed by Professor Zhang

301
00:12:07.640 --> 00:12:10.400
and colleagues, suggesting that all FRBs

302
00:12:10.400 --> 00:12:13.040
originate from Magnetars, but those within

303
00:12:13.040 --> 00:12:15.880
binary systems have specific geometries

304
00:12:15.880 --> 00:12:18.440
and environments that make them repeat more

305
00:12:18.440 --> 00:12:19.040
frequently.

306
00:12:19.440 --> 00:12:21.400
Anna: So we're starting to piece together the

307
00:12:21.400 --> 00:12:24.000
puzzle of, uh, why some FRBs repeat

308
00:12:24.240 --> 00:12:25.280
and others don't.

309
00:12:25.910 --> 00:12:28.550
Avery: Exactly. And this discovery was only

310
00:12:28.630 --> 00:12:31.270
possible because of persevering observations

311
00:12:31.590 --> 00:12:34.030
using the world's best telescopes and the

312
00:12:34.030 --> 00:12:36.470
tireless work of dedicated research teams.

313
00:12:36.630 --> 00:12:38.710
It's astronomy at its finest.

314
00:12:39.190 --> 00:12:41.350
Anna: Alright, now let's look ahead, because

315
00:12:41.430 --> 00:12:43.910
2026 is shaping up to be an

316
00:12:43.910 --> 00:12:46.790
absolutely incredible year for space science.

317
00:12:47.030 --> 00:12:48.870
Avery, where should we even begin?

318
00:12:49.430 --> 00:12:51.950
Avery: There's so much happening. Ana, uh, let's

319
00:12:51.950 --> 00:12:53.790
start with lunar missions, because we're

320
00:12:53.790 --> 00:12:55.830
seeing a real renaissance in moon

321
00:12:55.830 --> 00:12:58.780
exploration. Multiple commercial landers and

322
00:12:58.780 --> 00:13:00.660
government missions are on the schedule.

323
00:13:00.900 --> 00:13:03.220
Anna: And we learned some valuable lessons from

324
00:13:03.220 --> 00:13:05.940
2025's lunar landing attempts, didn't we?

325
00:13:06.420 --> 00:13:08.540
Avery: We certainly did. In early

326
00:13:08.540 --> 00:13:11.060
2025, three commercial landers

327
00:13:11.060 --> 00:13:13.460
attempted moon landings, but only one,

328
00:13:13.540 --> 00:13:15.700
Firefly Aerospace's Blue Ghost,

329
00:13:15.860 --> 00:13:18.740
succeeded. That was a major milestone as

330
00:13:18.740 --> 00:13:21.380
the first fully successful commercial lunar

331
00:13:21.380 --> 00:13:21.860
landing.

332
00:13:22.350 --> 00:13:24.990
Anna: Blue Ghost touched down near Mons Littrelle

333
00:13:24.990 --> 00:13:27.750
in Mar Criseum and operated for several

334
00:13:27.750 --> 00:13:29.910
days before shutting down during the lunar

335
00:13:29.910 --> 00:13:30.190
night.

336
00:13:30.830 --> 00:13:33.190
Avery: Right, And Firefly isn't resting on their

337
00:13:33.190 --> 00:13:35.630
laurels. They're planning Blue Ghost Mission

338
00:13:35.630 --> 00:13:38.469
2 for November 2026, launching

339
00:13:38.469 --> 00:13:41.390
aboard a Falcon 9. This mission will carry

340
00:13:41.390 --> 00:13:43.390
some really interesting payloads, including

341
00:13:43.470 --> 00:13:45.710
NASA's Lucy Night experiment.

342
00:13:46.190 --> 00:13:48.670
Anna: That's the Lunar Surface Electromagnetic

343
00:13:48.670 --> 00:13:51.480
Experiment at night. And it's particularly

344
00:13:51.480 --> 00:13:53.400
exciting because it'll become the first

345
00:13:53.480 --> 00:13:55.960
operational radio telescope on the moon,

346
00:13:56.120 --> 00:13:57.800
operating through the lunar night.

347
00:13:58.360 --> 00:14:00.360
Avery: Also flying on that mission is the United

348
00:14:00.440 --> 00:14:02.760
Arab Emirates Rasheed Rover 2.

349
00:14:03.240 --> 00:14:04.960
But what makes this launch even more

350
00:14:04.960 --> 00:14:07.560
interesting is that it'll debut Firefly's

351
00:14:07.560 --> 00:14:10.440
Elytra Dark Space Tug, which will boost Blue

352
00:14:10.440 --> 00:14:13.400
Ghost to the moon and insert ESA's Lunar

353
00:14:13.400 --> 00:14:16.000
Pathfinder communication satellite into lunar

354
00:14:16.000 --> 00:14:16.440
orbit.

355
00:14:16.850 --> 00:14:18.850
Anna: There are other commercial missions planned

356
00:14:18.850 --> 00:14:19.570
too, right?

357
00:14:19.970 --> 00:14:22.490
Avery: Absolutely. Intuitive Machines is planning

358
00:14:22.490 --> 00:14:24.930
its IM3 mission in the second half of the

359
00:14:24.930 --> 00:14:27.850
year with another Nova Sea Lander. And Blue

360
00:14:27.850 --> 00:14:29.890
Origin will attempt its first lunar landing

361
00:14:29.890 --> 00:14:32.250
with the Blue Moon Mark one Pathfinder

362
00:14:32.250 --> 00:14:34.730
mission, testing systems for future crewed

363
00:14:34.730 --> 00:14:35.090
missions.

364
00:14:35.330 --> 00:14:36.930
Anna: What about the Gryphon Lander?

365
00:14:37.250 --> 00:14:39.650
Avery: Astrobotics Gryphon Lander is scheduled for

366
00:14:39.650 --> 00:14:42.170
July 2026. And it'll carry

367
00:14:42.170 --> 00:14:44.830
Astrolabe's Flip rover, a, uh,

368
00:14:44.890 --> 00:14:47.650
prototype for their larger Flex rover

369
00:14:47.650 --> 00:14:49.870
being pitched. NASA's Artemis programme.

370
00:14:50.190 --> 00:14:52.430
Anna: And China's getting in on the action too.

371
00:14:52.830 --> 00:14:55.510
Avery: They are. Chang' e 7 is planned to launch

372
00:14:55.510 --> 00:14:57.830
this year and attempt a landing on the rim of

373
00:14:57.830 --> 00:15:00.830
Shackleton Crater near the south pole. It's a

374
00:15:00.830 --> 00:15:03.470
comprehensive mission with an orbiter, lander

375
00:15:03.470 --> 00:15:06.110
rover and even a small hopping probe.

376
00:15:06.430 --> 00:15:09.070
Anna: Let's shift to Mars. What's happening there?

377
00:15:09.550 --> 00:15:12.550
Avery: Well, 2026 marks another Mars transfer

378
00:15:12.550 --> 00:15:14.750
window, so we'll see new missions heading to

379
00:15:14.750 --> 00:15:17.550
the Red Planet. NASA's twin escapade

380
00:15:17.550 --> 00:15:20.030
satellites called Blue and Gold actually

381
00:15:20.030 --> 00:15:22.950
launched in November 2025 and are waiting

382
00:15:22.950 --> 00:15:25.750
at the Sun Earth Lagrange.2 until the

383
00:15:25.750 --> 00:15:27.310
transfer window opens in November.

384
00:15:27.550 --> 00:15:28.430
Anna: What will they study?

385
00:15:28.990 --> 00:15:31.070
Avery: They'll investigate how the solar wind has

386
00:15:31.070 --> 00:15:33.270
been stripping away at Mars atmosphere over

387
00:15:33.270 --> 00:15:36.270
time. And Japan's MMX M UM mission, the

388
00:15:36.270 --> 00:15:38.870
Martian Moons Exploration Mission, will also

389
00:15:38.870 --> 00:15:41.350
launch during this window to study Phobos and

390
00:15:41.350 --> 00:15:43.880
Deimos and even attempt to collect a sample

391
00:15:43.880 --> 00:15:44.800
from Phobos.

392
00:15:44.960 --> 00:15:47.080
Anna: There's also the ongoing situation with

393
00:15:47.080 --> 00:15:49.120
NASA's MAVEN satellite. Isn't there?

394
00:15:49.520 --> 00:15:52.400
Avery: Unfortunately, yes. MAVEN lost contact in

395
00:15:52.400 --> 00:15:54.560
early December when it failed to cheque in

396
00:15:54.560 --> 00:15:57.480
after passing behind Mars. A small fragment

397
00:15:57.480 --> 00:16:00.080
of telemetry suggests the spacecraft might be

398
00:16:00.080 --> 00:16:02.400
rotating and its orbit may have changed.

399
00:16:02.720 --> 00:16:05.120
NASA had to pause recovery efforts during the

400
00:16:05.120 --> 00:16:07.320
Mars solar conjunction, but they planned to

401
00:16:07.320 --> 00:16:09.900
start trying again over the weekend. No word

402
00:16:09.900 --> 00:16:11.900
yet on how that's going, but fingers are

403
00:16:11.900 --> 00:16:12.420
crossed.

404
00:16:12.740 --> 00:16:14.740
Anna: Indeed, fingers crossed for maven.

405
00:16:15.300 --> 00:16:17.780
Now, what about space telescopes? We've got

406
00:16:17.780 --> 00:16:19.300
some major launches coming up.

407
00:16:19.780 --> 00:16:22.060
Avery: Three new space telescopes are launching in

408
00:16:22.060 --> 00:16:24.900
2026. First up is ESA's

409
00:16:24.900 --> 00:16:27.540
Smile mission in April aboard a Vega C

410
00:16:27.540 --> 00:16:30.300
rocket. It'll study Earth's magnetosphere

411
00:16:30.300 --> 00:16:33.260
interacting with solar wind using soft X ray

412
00:16:33.260 --> 00:16:34.740
and ultraviolet observations.

413
00:16:35.240 --> 00:16:37.400
Anna: Then we have the Nancy Grace Roman Space

414
00:16:37.400 --> 00:16:38.760
Telescope in October.

415
00:16:39.400 --> 00:16:42.000
Avery: M that's the big one. Roman will launch on a

416
00:16:42.000 --> 00:16:44.800
Falcon 9 and features a 288

417
00:16:44.800 --> 00:16:47.720
megapixel camera that'll perform sky surveys

418
00:16:47.720 --> 00:16:50.520
with Hubble quality resolution, but producing

419
00:16:50.520 --> 00:16:53.000
images nearly 200 times larger.

420
00:16:53.320 --> 00:16:55.360
Construction was completed in November and

421
00:16:55.360 --> 00:16:56.920
it's currently in final testing.

422
00:16:57.160 --> 00:16:59.960
Anna: And ESA's Plato mission rounds out the year.

423
00:17:00.690 --> 00:17:03.020
Avery: Exactly. PLATO launches in December aboard,

424
00:17:03.020 --> 00:17:05.730
uh, an Ariane6.2 and will search for

425
00:17:05.730 --> 00:17:07.890
Earth like exoplanets in their star's

426
00:17:07.890 --> 00:17:10.690
habitable zones. It'll study up to 1

427
00:17:10.690 --> 00:17:11.570
million stars.

428
00:17:11.890 --> 00:17:14.770
Anna: There are also some exciting arrivals this

429
00:17:14.770 --> 00:17:15.410
year, right?

430
00:17:15.970 --> 00:17:18.930
Avery: Yes. ESA's HERA mission arrives

431
00:17:18.930 --> 00:17:21.370
at the Didymos binary asteroid system in

432
00:17:21.370 --> 00:17:24.010
November, a month ahead of schedule thanks to

433
00:17:24.010 --> 00:17:26.700
excellent spacecraft performance. It'll study

434
00:17:26.700 --> 00:17:28.860
the crater left by NASA's dart impact.

435
00:17:29.340 --> 00:17:31.340
Anna: And don't forget BepiColombo.

436
00:17:31.820 --> 00:17:34.540
Avery: Right. The joint ESA JAXA

437
00:17:34.540 --> 00:17:37.500
mission enters Mercury orbit on November 6th.

438
00:17:37.740 --> 00:17:40.700
After an eight year journey, it'll deploy two

439
00:17:40.700 --> 00:17:43.140
orbiters that begin science operations in

440
00:17:43.140 --> 00:17:44.460
early 2027.

441
00:17:44.860 --> 00:17:47.820
Anna: This really is going to be an incredible year

442
00:17:47.820 --> 00:17:48.780
for space science.

443
00:17:49.500 --> 00:17:52.300
Avery: Without a doubt. From the Moon to Mars,

444
00:17:52.380 --> 00:17:54.940
from nearby asteroids to distant galaxies,

445
00:17:55.260 --> 00:17:58.080
2026 promises discoveries will

446
00:17:58.080 --> 00:18:00.040
advance our understanding of the cosmos.

447
00:18:00.440 --> 00:18:02.960
Anna: Now we need to talk about a, uh. Concerning

448
00:18:02.960 --> 00:18:05.920
development in Earth orbit. Bain's His

449
00:18:05.920 --> 00:18:08.320
DAT company has confirmed that one of their

450
00:18:08.320 --> 00:18:10.760
military communications satellites has

451
00:18:10.760 --> 00:18:12.800
sustained what they're calling non

452
00:18:12.800 --> 00:18:13.960
recoverable damage.

453
00:18:14.680 --> 00:18:17.240
Avery: This is a significant loss. Anna. Uh, we're

454
00:18:17.240 --> 00:18:20.080
talking about the SpainSat NG2 satellite,

455
00:18:20.080 --> 00:18:22.160
which was struck by what's being described as

456
00:18:22.160 --> 00:18:24.670
a space particle. And despite the

457
00:18:24.670 --> 00:18:27.390
relatively small size of this particle, the

458
00:18:27.390 --> 00:18:28.470
damage is total.

459
00:18:28.870 --> 00:18:31.550
Anna: Let's give our listeners some context. This

460
00:18:31.550 --> 00:18:33.750
satellite was brand new, wasn't it?

461
00:18:34.390 --> 00:18:36.990
Avery: Very new. It launched aboard a SpaceX

462
00:18:36.990 --> 00:18:39.590
Falcon 9 just this past October

463
00:18:39.830 --> 00:18:42.830
2025. SpainSatNG2 was one of a

464
00:18:42.830 --> 00:18:45.510
pair of satellites built by Airbus to provide

465
00:18:45.510 --> 00:18:47.870
secure communications for Spain's armed

466
00:18:47.870 --> 00:18:50.470
forces. So what exactly happened

467
00:18:51.210 --> 00:18:54.210
on January 16? Hisdat released details

468
00:18:54.210 --> 00:18:56.490
explaining that while the space particle was

469
00:18:56.490 --> 00:18:59.290
estimated to be only millimetres in size and

470
00:18:59.290 --> 00:19:02.050
weighing just a few grammes, its extremely

471
00:19:02.050 --> 00:19:04.490
high velocity combined with the location of

472
00:19:04.490 --> 00:19:07.009
the impact caused catastrophic non

473
00:19:07.009 --> 00:19:08.170
recoverable damage.

474
00:19:08.570 --> 00:19:10.850
Anna: That really highlights the danger of space

475
00:19:10.850 --> 00:19:13.130
debris and micrometeorites, doesn't it?

476
00:19:13.610 --> 00:19:16.290
Avery: Absolutely. Even something tiny can be

477
00:19:16.290 --> 00:19:18.330
devastating when it's travelling at orbital

478
00:19:18.330 --> 00:19:21.300
velocities. The company did note that because

479
00:19:21.300 --> 00:19:23.900
a satellite is in a highly eccentric orbit,

480
00:19:24.060 --> 00:19:26.780
it doesn't pose any risk or interference to

481
00:19:26.780 --> 00:19:28.780
existing or future space missions.

482
00:19:29.180 --> 00:19:31.100
Anna: What are the financial implications?

483
00:19:31.740 --> 00:19:34.340
Avery: Well, his dad says the satellite was fully

484
00:19:34.340 --> 00:19:36.660
insured against this type of incident, so

485
00:19:36.660 --> 00:19:38.980
there won't be any direct economic damage to

486
00:19:38.980 --> 00:19:41.500
the company. However, here's the thing.

487
00:19:41.820 --> 00:19:44.150
While the insurance covers the loss, a uh,

488
00:19:44.220 --> 00:19:46.940
claim this large will almost certainly drive

489
00:19:46.940 --> 00:19:49.340
up insurance premiums for future satellites.

490
00:19:49.790 --> 00:19:51.230
Anna: How much are we talking about?

491
00:19:51.950 --> 00:19:54.910
Avery: The total SpainSat ng programme cost is

492
00:19:54.910 --> 00:19:57.830
around 2 billion euros, according to Spain's

493
00:19:57.830 --> 00:20:00.030
official foreign investment promotion agency.

494
00:20:00.510 --> 00:20:03.270
So this single satellite claim is likely in

495
00:20:03.270 --> 00:20:04.990
the hundreds of millions of euros.

496
00:20:05.390 --> 00:20:07.470
Anna: That's going to have ripple effects across

497
00:20:07.470 --> 00:20:08.510
the insurance market.

498
00:20:09.150 --> 00:20:11.790
Avery: It will. And there's another concern. The

499
00:20:11.790 --> 00:20:14.390
replacement timeline. Airbus secured the

500
00:20:14.390 --> 00:20:16.950
contract to build the first two Spain Sat Ng

501
00:20:16.950 --> 00:20:19.930
satellites back in May 2019 and the

502
00:20:19.930 --> 00:20:22.370
first one launched in January 2025.

503
00:20:22.690 --> 00:20:25.130
That's more than five years from contract to

504
00:20:25.130 --> 00:20:25.410
launch.

505
00:20:25.730 --> 00:20:28.410
Anna: So if we're looking at a similar timeline for

506
00:20:28.410 --> 00:20:31.330
SpainSat NG3, we might not

507
00:20:31.330 --> 00:20:33.890
see a replacement until around 2030.

508
00:20:34.450 --> 00:20:37.290
Avery: That's the concern. In fact, HISDAT has

509
00:20:37.290 --> 00:20:39.810
already initiated a request for quotation for

510
00:20:39.810 --> 00:20:42.130
the replacement satellite. In the meantime,

511
00:20:42.130 --> 00:20:43.890
they'll continue providing secure

512
00:20:43.890 --> 00:20:46.690
communications for Spain's armed forces using

513
00:20:46.690 --> 00:20:49.450
Spainsat NG1 and the original

514
00:20:49.450 --> 00:20:50.770
Spainsat satellite.

515
00:20:51.310 --> 00:20:53.630
Anna: Wait, the original Sveinsat from

516
00:20:53.630 --> 00:20:54.750
2006?

517
00:20:55.470 --> 00:20:58.310
Avery: Exactly. That satellite launched aboard an

518
00:20:58.310 --> 00:21:01.030
Ariane 5 in 2006 with a

519
00:21:01.030 --> 00:21:04.030
15 year design life. And here we are almost

520
00:21:04.110 --> 00:21:06.430
20 years later, still relying on it.

521
00:21:06.749 --> 00:21:08.470
That's actually a testament to good

522
00:21:08.470 --> 00:21:09.550
engineering and design.

523
00:21:09.950 --> 00:21:12.510
Anna: But surely it can't be operating at full

524
00:21:12.510 --> 00:21:14.430
capacity after all this time?

525
00:21:14.990 --> 00:21:17.880
Avery: You'd expect some degradation, yes, but it's

526
00:21:17.880 --> 00:21:20.040
remarkable that it's still functional. But

527
00:21:20.040 --> 00:21:22.120
this incident really underscores the

528
00:21:22.120 --> 00:21:24.600
vulnerability of our space assets and the

529
00:21:24.600 --> 00:21:26.400
importance of having redundancy.

530
00:21:26.720 --> 00:21:29.720
Anna: This also raises questions about space debris

531
00:21:29.720 --> 00:21:31.760
tracking and mitigation, doesn't it?

532
00:21:32.240 --> 00:21:34.880
Avery: Absolutely. If a particle just

533
00:21:34.960 --> 00:21:37.880
millimetres in size can cause total loss of

534
00:21:37.880 --> 00:21:40.200
a satellite worth hundreds of millions of

535
00:21:40.200 --> 00:21:43.120
euros, we really need to think seriously

536
00:21:43.120 --> 00:21:45.260
about the growing debris problem in Earth or

537
00:21:45.410 --> 00:21:46.290
orbit and around it.

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Anna: For our final storey, let's venture into the

539
00:21:49.530 --> 00:21:51.570
distant universe to talk about some

540
00:21:51.570 --> 00:21:54.290
fascinating new research on dwarf galaxies

541
00:21:54.290 --> 00:21:56.690
and the black holes at their centres.

542
00:21:57.090 --> 00:21:59.850
Avery, this is challenging some long held

543
00:21:59.850 --> 00:22:00.450
assumptions.

544
00:22:00.930 --> 00:22:03.650
Avery: It really is, Anna. Astronomers from the

545
00:22:03.650 --> 00:22:05.690
Harvard and Smithsonian Centre for

546
00:22:05.690 --> 00:22:08.130
Astrophysics and the University of North

547
00:22:08.130 --> 00:22:10.650
Carolina at Chapel Hill presented what

548
00:22:10.650 --> 00:22:13.210
they're calling the most comprehensive senses

549
00:22:13.210 --> 00:22:15.650
of active galactic nuclei in dwarf

550
00:22:15.880 --> 00:22:16.920
galaxies to date.

551
00:22:17.240 --> 00:22:19.200
Anna: Now, for listeners who might need a

552
00:22:19.200 --> 00:22:21.680
refresher, can you explain what an active

553
00:22:21.680 --> 00:22:23.080
galactic nucleus is?

554
00:22:23.800 --> 00:22:26.520
Avery: Sure. Active galactic nuclei, or

555
00:22:26.520 --> 00:22:29.520
agn, sometimes called quasars, are the

556
00:22:29.520 --> 00:22:32.200
incredibly bright core regions of galaxies.

557
00:22:32.360 --> 00:22:35.200
They're so luminous that they can temporarily

558
00:22:35.200 --> 00:22:37.680
outshine all the stars in the entire

559
00:22:37.680 --> 00:22:38.760
galaxy combined.

560
00:22:39.000 --> 00:22:41.240
Anna: And that's because of the supermassive black

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00:22:41.240 --> 00:22:42.680
holes at the centre of.

562
00:22:42.990 --> 00:22:45.590
Avery: Exactly. These supermassive black

563
00:22:45.590 --> 00:22:48.550
holes accelerate infalling gas and dust and

564
00:22:48.550 --> 00:22:50.870
their accretion discs to near the speed of

565
00:22:50.870 --> 00:22:53.870
light, producing intense radiation across the

566
00:22:53.870 --> 00:22:56.550
electromagnetic spectrum. Everything from

567
00:22:56.550 --> 00:22:59.390
visible light in infrared to microwaves and

568
00:22:59.390 --> 00:23:00.030
X rays.

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00:23:00.350 --> 00:23:02.830
Anna: For decades, we've known that many massive

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00:23:02.830 --> 00:23:05.190
galaxies have supermassive black holes at

571
00:23:05.190 --> 00:23:07.670
their centres. And we assumed the same was

572
00:23:07.670 --> 00:23:09.470
true for dwarf galaxies, right?

573
00:23:10.250 --> 00:23:12.570
Avery: That was the assumption. But scientists have

574
00:23:12.570 --> 00:23:14.970
since learned that many dwarf galaxies

575
00:23:14.970 --> 00:23:17.090
actually don't have these central black

576
00:23:17.090 --> 00:23:19.890
holes. That's why this new census was so

577
00:23:19.890 --> 00:23:20.170
important.

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00:23:20.810 --> 00:23:21.930
Anna: So what did they do?

579
00:23:22.410 --> 00:23:25.330
Avery: The team reassessed over 8,000 nearby

580
00:23:25.330 --> 00:23:27.570
galaxies for signs of active black hole

581
00:23:27.570 --> 00:23:30.250
activity. They grouped these galaxies by mass

582
00:23:30.250 --> 00:23:33.050
and analysed the latest optical, infrared

583
00:23:33.050 --> 00:23:36.010
and X ray observations to detect Even the

584
00:23:36.010 --> 00:23:38.010
faintest signs of AGN activity.

585
00:23:38.570 --> 00:23:39.610
Anna: And what did they find?

586
00:23:40.090 --> 00:23:42.772
Avery: Previous surveys generally found about 10

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00:23:42.888 --> 00:23:45.810
AGNs per 1,000 dwarf galaxies. That's

588
00:23:45.810 --> 00:23:48.810
just 1%. But this new census yielded

589
00:23:48.810 --> 00:23:51.610
values of about 20 to 50 per 1,000

590
00:23:51.930 --> 00:23:53.530
or 2 to 5%.

591
00:23:54.089 --> 00:23:56.930
Anna: So they're finding AGNs are two to five times

592
00:23:56.930 --> 00:23:59.050
more common than we thought in dwarf

593
00:23:59.050 --> 00:23:59.690
galaxies?

594
00:23:59.690 --> 00:24:02.610
Avery: Yes. Now this is still significantly

595
00:24:02.610 --> 00:24:04.650
less than what we observe in medium sized

596
00:24:04.650 --> 00:24:07.650
galaxies at 16 to 27% or

597
00:24:07.650 --> 00:24:10.080
large galaxies at 20 to 48%.

598
00:24:10.790 --> 00:24:12.950
But it's a substantial increase from previous

599
00:24:12.950 --> 00:24:13.590
estimates.

600
00:24:13.910 --> 00:24:16.070
Anna: What's causing this discrepancy with earlier

601
00:24:16.150 --> 00:24:16.710
surveys?

602
00:24:17.270 --> 00:24:19.470
Avery: A big part of it was suppressing the glare

603
00:24:19.470 --> 00:24:21.990
from star formation, which had been obscuring

604
00:24:21.990 --> 00:24:23.830
emissions from accreting, uh, black holes.

605
00:24:24.150 --> 00:24:26.550
The team developed better detection methods

606
00:24:26.550 --> 00:24:27.830
to cut through that glare.

607
00:24:28.390 --> 00:24:30.230
Anna: So what does this tell us about how black

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00:24:30.230 --> 00:24:31.910
holes relate to galaxy mass?

609
00:24:32.470 --> 00:24:34.910
Avery: Well, the results suggest that AGN

610
00:24:34.910 --> 00:24:37.870
frequency is mass dependent and increases

611
00:24:37.870 --> 00:24:40.430
sharply among galaxies with mass similar to

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00:24:40.430 --> 00:24:43.040
our Milky Way. As lead author Magda

613
00:24:43.040 --> 00:24:45.840
Polymera explained, there's an intense jump

614
00:24:45.840 --> 00:24:48.760
in AGN activity between dwarf galaxies and

615
00:24:48.760 --> 00:24:50.080
mid sized galaxies.

616
00:24:50.400 --> 00:24:52.880
Anna: That's a significant finding. What might

617
00:24:52.880 --> 00:24:53.520
explain it?

618
00:24:53.840 --> 00:24:56.280
Avery: It could indicate a fundamental shift in the

619
00:24:56.280 --> 00:24:59.280
galaxies themselves as they grow. Or it might

620
00:24:59.280 --> 00:25:01.360
mean we're still not catching everything into

621
00:25:01.360 --> 00:25:03.560
smaller galaxies and need even better

622
00:25:03.560 --> 00:25:06.040
detection methods. Either way, it's an

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00:25:06.040 --> 00:25:06.800
important clue.

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00:25:07.270 --> 00:25:09.350
Anna: How does this relate to galaxy formation?

625
00:25:09.910 --> 00:25:12.390
Avery: Well, as co author Professor Sheila

626
00:25:12.390 --> 00:25:15.270
Kanopan pointed out, we believe the Milky Way

627
00:25:15.350 --> 00:25:18.150
formed from many smaller galaxies that merged

628
00:25:18.150 --> 00:25:20.790
together. So the massive black holes in those

629
00:25:20.790 --> 00:25:23.350
dwarf galaxies should have merged to form the

630
00:25:23.350 --> 00:25:25.750
Milky Way's supermassive black hole.

631
00:25:26.150 --> 00:25:28.390
Anna: So understanding these dwarf galaxy black

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00:25:28.390 --> 00:25:31.030
holes helps us understand our own galaxy's

633
00:25:31.030 --> 00:25:31.350
history.

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00:25:31.990 --> 00:25:34.810
Avery: Exactly. These results are essential to

635
00:25:34.810 --> 00:25:37.210
test models of black hole origins and their

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00:25:37.210 --> 00:25:39.810
role in shaping galaxies over cosmic time.

637
00:25:40.290 --> 00:25:42.930
Are there still uncertainties in this census?

638
00:25:43.330 --> 00:25:45.690
Yes. There's still a margin of uncertainty

639
00:25:45.690 --> 00:25:47.850
where fainter creating black holes are

640
00:25:47.850 --> 00:25:49.970
involved. So these percentages are

641
00:25:49.970 --> 00:25:52.690
approximate. Future observations with more

642
00:25:52.690 --> 00:25:55.010
sensitive instruments will likely refine

643
00:25:55.010 --> 00:25:55.650
these numbers.

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00:25:55.730 --> 00:25:58.410
Anna: But this gives astronomers a much clearer

645
00:25:58.410 --> 00:25:59.570
picture than we had before.

646
00:26:00.010 --> 00:26:02.970
Avery: Absolutely. It provides the clearest picture

647
00:26:02.970 --> 00:26:05.890
yet of how likely galaxies of different sizes

648
00:26:05.890 --> 00:26:08.450
are to host active black holes. And it

649
00:26:08.450 --> 00:26:10.650
demonstrates how cutting through the glare of

650
00:26:10.650 --> 00:26:12.890
star formation can reveal what's really

651
00:26:12.890 --> 00:26:15.130
happening at the centres of nearby galaxies.

652
00:26:15.130 --> 00:26:17.170
Anna: And the team is releasing their data for

653
00:26:17.170 --> 00:26:19.530
other researchers to verify and expand on.

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00:26:19.770 --> 00:26:22.010
Avery: That's right. They're making their processed

655
00:26:22.010 --> 00:26:24.290
measurements available so other astronomers

656
00:26:24.290 --> 00:26:26.570
can confirm and build on these results.

657
00:26:27.270 --> 00:26:28.470
That's good science in action.

658
00:26:28.470 --> 00:26:30.470
Anna: Well, that brings us to the end of another

659
00:26:30.550 --> 00:26:33.390
packed episode of Astronomy Daily. From

660
00:26:33.390 --> 00:26:35.470
the Artemis, uh, two rocket reaching the

661
00:26:35.470 --> 00:26:37.950
launch pad to new discoveries about black

662
00:26:37.950 --> 00:26:40.910
holes in dwarf galaxies, it's been quite a

663
00:26:40.910 --> 00:26:42.310
journey through the cosmos today.

664
00:26:42.390 --> 00:26:44.590
Avery: It really has, Anna. Uh, we covered

665
00:26:44.590 --> 00:26:47.230
everything from the Moon to Venus to distant

666
00:26:47.230 --> 00:26:49.870
galaxies, and every storey reminds us just

667
00:26:49.870 --> 00:26:52.310
how active and exciting space exploration and

668
00:26:52.310 --> 00:26:53.510
astronomy are right now.

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00:26:53.510 --> 00:26:55.670
Anna: Before we go, a quick reminder that you can

670
00:26:55.670 --> 00:26:57.950
find more space and astronomy news on our

671
00:26:57.950 --> 00:27:00.690
website@astronomydaily.IO.

672
00:27:00.770 --> 00:27:03.530
we've got detailed articles, images and lots

673
00:27:03.530 --> 00:27:05.490
more content for space enthusiasts.

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00:27:05.570 --> 00:27:07.730
Avery: And if you enjoyed today's episode, please

675
00:27:07.730 --> 00:27:09.930
subscribe to Astronomy Daily. Wherever you

676
00:27:09.930 --> 00:27:12.170
get your podcasts, we're here every day

677
00:27:12.170 --> 00:27:14.250
bringing you the latest news from across the

678
00:27:14.250 --> 00:27:14.689
universe.

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00:27:14.689 --> 00:27:16.650
Anna: Thanks so much for listening, everyone. I'm

680
00:27:16.650 --> 00:27:17.090
Anna.

681
00:27:17.090 --> 00:27:19.610
Avery: And I'm Avery. Keep looking up and we'll see

682
00:27:19.610 --> 00:27:21.250
you next time on Astronomy Daily.

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00:27:21.250 --> 00:27:21.890
Anna: Clear skies