Theia Unveiled: Tracing the Origins of Earth's Moon and Lucy's Journey to Jupiter's Trojans

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Stuart Gary: This is space Time Series 28, episode

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142 for broadcast on the 3rd of December,

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2025. Coming up on Space Time,

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A new study has found that the small planet

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that collided with the Earth to create our

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moon also originated from the inner solar

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system. An update on, um, Lucy's mission to

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Jupiter's Trojan asteroids. And NASA

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rules that Starliner's next mission to the

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International Space Station will be limited

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to cargo only. All that and more

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coming up on Space Time.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Gary

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Gary.

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Stuart Gary: A new study has found that the small planet

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that collided with the Earth to create our

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moon also originated from the inner solar

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system. About four and a half billion years

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ago, the most momentous event in the history

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of our planet occurred. A huge celestial

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body about the size of the planet Mars, which

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astronomers have now named Theia, collided

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with the young proto Earth, uh, creating a

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vast magma ocean which eventually coalesced,

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differentiated, and then solidified to form

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the Earth as we know it today. Meanwhile,

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some of the debris ejected from that impact

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was flung up into orbit, eventually

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coalescing to form the Moon. Exactly

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how that collision unfolded and what

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precisely happened afterwards has not been

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conclusively clarified. What is certain,

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however, is that the size, composition and

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orbit of the Earth changed as a result, and

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that the impact marked the birth of our

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constant companion in space, the Moon.

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But there are lots of questions yet to be

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answered. What kind of body was this Theia

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that so dramatically altered the course of

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our planet's development? How big was Theia

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really? We think it was about a third, uh,

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the size of the Earth. What was it made of?

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And from which part of the solar system did

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it come crashing into the Earth? The problem

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is, finding answers to these questions is

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difficult. After all, Theia was completely

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destroyed in that collision. Nevertheless,

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faint traces of it can still be found today

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in the composition of the Earth and Moon.

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Now, a report in the journal Science by

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researchers at the Max Planck Institute and

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the University of Chicago have worked out a

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possible list of ingredients that may have

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made up Theia, and thus helps to point us

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in the direction of its place of origin. You

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see, the ratio of certain metal isotopes

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present in a body can be especially

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revealing. Isotopes are variants of the

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same element that differ only in the number

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of neutrons in their atomic nucleus, and thus

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in their mass. In the early solar system,

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the isotopes of certain given elements were

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unlikely to be evenly distributed. At the

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outer edge of the solar system, for example,

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isotopes occurred at a slightly different

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ratio than what they did near the Sun. So

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information about the origin of a body's

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original building blocks is thus stored in

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its isotopic composition. To reach their

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conclusions in this study, the authors

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determined the ratio of different iron

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isotopes in Earth and Moon rocks with

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unprecedented precision. They examined

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15 terrestrial rocks and six lunar rock

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samples, which were brought back by the

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Apollo missions. Earlier measurements of the

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isotope ratios of chromium, calcium,

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titanium and zirconium had already shown that

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the Earth and Moon are indistinguishable in

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terms of their composition. So that clearly

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doesn't allow for any direct conclusions

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about Theia. There are simply too many

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possible collision scenarios. Most

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models assume that the Moon was formed almost

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exclusively from ejected material which was

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flung off from Theia. But it's also possible

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that it consists primarily of material from

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the early Earth's mantle, or that the rocks

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from the Earth and Theia, uh, were mixed

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together. Now, uh, in order to learn more

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about Theia, the authors applied a kind of

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reverse engineering for planets. Based on

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the matching isotope ratios in today's

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terrestrial lunar rocks. They looked at which

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compositions and sizes of Theia and which

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composition of the early Earth could have led

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to the two bodies current compositions. In

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their investigations, the authors looked not

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only at iron isotopes, but also at those of

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chromium, molybdenum, and zirconium.

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The different elements give access to

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different phases of planetary formation.

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Long before the devastating encounter with

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Theia, a kind of sorting process had already

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taken place inside the early Earth with the

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formation of the planet's iron core. Some

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elements, such as iron and molybdenum,

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accumulated there, so afterwards they

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were largely absent from the rocky mantle

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above. The iron found in Earth's mantle

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today could therefore only have arrived after

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the core had formed. It may have come from

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Theia. Other elements, such as zirconium,

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which didn't sink to the core, document the

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entire history of our planet's formation.

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Of the mathematically possible compositions

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of Theia and the early Earth that result from

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the calculations, some can be ruled out as

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implausible. While the composition of the

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early Earth can be represented predominantly

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as a mixture of known meteorite classes, this

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isn't the case with theia. Uh, different

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meteorite classes originate from different

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areas of the outer solar system. They

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therefore serve as references for the

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building material that was available during

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the formation of both the early Earth and

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Theia. In the case of theia, however,

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previously unknown material may also have

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been involved, and the authors believe that

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this material's origin lies closer to the sun

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than the orbit of the Earth. The

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calculations therefore suggest that THEIA

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itself must have originated closer to the sun

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than Earth's orbit. This is space

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time. Still to come, an update on um,

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Lucy's mission to Jupiter's Trojan asteroids.

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And NASA rules that the trouble plagued

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starliner's next mission to the International

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Space Station will be limited to cargo only.

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All that and more still to come on um, space

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time.

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One of the many exciting missions Currently

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underway is NASA's Lucy spacecraft which

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is on its way to study Jupiter's Trojan

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asteroids. Lucy was launched back in October

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2021. It's on a 12 year

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mission to study the Trojans, two clusters of

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asteroids that share the gas giant's orbit

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around the sun. Trojans are families of

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asteroids kept in gravitationally stable

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bound groups at the Lagrangian L4 and L5

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positions located 60 degrees ahead and

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60 degrees behind Jupiter's orbit around the

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Sun. Lagrangian points are

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named in honour of the Italian French

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mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, who was

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working on the general three body problem in

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orbital mechanics. Lagrangian points are,

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uh, places in space where the gravitational

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pull of two bodies, such as in this case

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between the sun and Jupiter, uh, tend to

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cancel each other out, thereby allowing

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smaller objects such as asteroids or

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spacecraft to remain there for extended

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periods of time. There are five

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Lagrangian points known as L1, 2,

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3, 4 and 5. Now uh, L1,

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2 and 3 are all along a line connecting the

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two bodies. Let's say it's the Earth and the

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Sun. In that case, L1 is between the

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Earth and the sun is often used by spacecraft

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needing an uninterrupted view of the sun,

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such as the Solar and heliospheric

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Observatory satellite SOHO. Uh, the L2

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position is on the opposite side of the Earth

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to the Sun. It's home, um, to spacecraft like

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the Webb Space Telescope because it's ideal

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for astronomy as spacecraft are still close

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enough to communicate with the Earth and can

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keep the Sun, Earth and Moon behind them,

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allowing them to gain solar power while still

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providing a clear dark view of deep space

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for their telescopes. The L3 position

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is on the opposite side of the sun to where

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the earth is. Because L3 is always

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hidden from the Earth by the sun, it's become

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popular in science fiction as the location

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for any hypothetical second Earths.

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But it's the L4 and L5 positions which

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provide stable orbits around 60 degrees in

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front of and 60 degrees behind Earth's orbit

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around the Sun. And it's at these locations

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where Trojan asteroids, such as those

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orbiting with Jupiter are commonly found.

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Jupiter's Trojans are, uh, distributed into

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two elongated curved regions around these

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Lagrangian points, with an average

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semicircular axis of around 5.2

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astronomical units. An astronomical unit is

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the average distance between the Earth and

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the Sun, 150 million kilometers, or

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8.3 light minutes. The first

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Jovian Trojan, discovered, 588 Achilles,

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was spotted in 1906 by German astronomer

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Max Wolf. So far, uh, more than

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15,300 Jovian Trojans have been

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detected. Now, by convention, they're each

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named from Greek mythology after a figure of

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the Trojan wars, hence the name Trojan.

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It later became convention to name Jupiter's

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L4 trojan asteroids after Greek characters

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and the L5 asteroids after trojan

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characters. Astronomers estimate there are

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more than a million Jovian Trojans larger

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than a kilometer in size. Now, that's about

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the same as the number of asteroids larger

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than a kilometer in the main asteroid belt

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between Mars and Jupiter. Many Jovian

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Trojans appear to be dark bodies with reddish

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featureless spectra. No firm evidence

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of the presence of water or any other

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specific compound on their surfaces has ever

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been obtained. But it is thought that they

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are coated in tholenes, organic polymers

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formed by the Sun's radiation. The Jovian

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Trojans are thought to have been captured

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into their orbits during the early stages of

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the solar system's formation, or at the most,

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slightly later during the Late Heavy

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Bombardment, during the migration of the

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giant planets. Mind you, Jupiter isn't

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alone to have Trojan asteroids. They've been

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found orbiting many of the other planets in

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our solar system as well, including Mars,

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Neptune, Uranus and even the Earth.

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No spacecraft has ever visited a Jovian

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Trojan. And that's where the Lucy mission

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comes in. Lucy is covering some six and a

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half billion kilometres, visiting a record

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breaking seven asteroids, one in the main

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asteroid belt and six Trojans. The

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mission's principal investigator, Harold

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Levison from the Southwest Research Institute

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in Boulder, Colorado, says Trojans are

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leftovers from the early days of our solar

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system. Effectively, they're fossils of

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planetary formation and therefore hold vital

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clues about deciphering the solar system's

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early history. He says. Like Lucy,

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the human ancestor fossil after which it's

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named, the Lucy spacecraft will revolutionize

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science's understanding of the solar system's

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origins. The mission will provide an

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unparalleled glimpse of the formation of the

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solar system, helping astronomers better

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understand the source of volatiles and

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organics on terrestrial planets, as well as

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the evolution of the planetary system as a

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whole. This Report from NASA

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TV we are.

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NASA TV: Going to an amazing variety of objects with

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this mission.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: The Lucy mission is going to fly past seven

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asteroids in 12 years with one

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spacecraft.

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NASA TV: And, um, it's really almost pure luck

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that allowed us to get as many rich targets

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as we are. Literally the planets were

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aligning to allow us to do this

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mission.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: The Lucy mission is named after the Lucy

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fossil, the Australopithecus fossil that was

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discovered in the 1970s in Ethiopia.

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And just like the Lucy fossil transformed our

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understanding of hominid evolution, the Lucy

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mission will transform our understanding of

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solar system evolution.

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NASA TV: Trojan asteroids are an interesting

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population of small bodies that are left over

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from the formation of the planets. And they

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lead or follow Jupiter in its

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orbit by roughly 60 degrees.

283
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If you just look at the gravitational

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attraction of the sun and Jupiter and put

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something exactly 60 degrees in front of

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Jupiter, it's stable forever. So as

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a result, these objects are really the

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leftovers of planet formation. The stuff that

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went into growing Jupiter and Saturn

290
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are now trapped in these

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locations.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: The very first asteroid we get to is a main

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belt asteroid named Donaldjohanson Johansen.

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We named that asteroid in honor of the

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researcher who found the Lucy fossil.

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We used that asteroid to, ah, do a rehearsal

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on our spacecraft to make sure everything is

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working properly so that when we get to the

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Trojan asteroids, we're ready to go.

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NASA TV: We're visiting both of the Trojan swarms. In

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the first orbit, we're going into the leading

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swarm and we're going to encounter four

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Trojan targets.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Ear Babies, Palame, Lucas and Oris.

305
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And from this we're going to sample the

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diversity in sizes and colors and

307
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compositions. The first two flybys happen

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just about 30 days apart. So it's going to be

309
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a pretty busy kickoff to the season of

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exploring the asteroids in the L4 swarm. And

311
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then we'll fly past Earth again and out to

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the L5 swarm.

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NASA TV: The final object we're visiting, which I must

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admit is my final favorite, is a binary

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object.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: So that's two Trojans that orbit a common

317
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center of mass. It's called Patroclus and

318
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Menoetius.

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NASA TV: These objects are nearly identical in size

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that orbit one another.

321
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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: From the Lucy mission, we're going to study

322
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the diversity of our targets because that

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tells us something about their origin and

324
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where they came from.

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NASA TV: The interesting thing about small bodies in

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general is they are the leftovers of planet

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formation. M if you look at the eight planets

328
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that we know about, for example, they are

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highly processed because of internal

330
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processing. These asteroids are objects

331
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that really haven't changed much

332
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from when the planets assembled themselves.

333
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And as a result, by studying them,

334
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we can figure out the physical conditions

335
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of the early solar system as well as how the

336
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planets grew and how they move

337
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moved around early on.

338
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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: All of that will help us form a detailed

339
00:14:08.660 --> 00:14:11.060
picture of what these objects really look

340
00:14:11.060 --> 00:14:14.060
like. Because right now our best images

341
00:14:14.060 --> 00:14:17.020
are just a point of light. Even using

342
00:14:17.260 --> 00:14:20.060
the Hubble Space Telescope or adaptive optics

343
00:14:20.060 --> 00:14:22.700
on large ground based telescopes, we

344
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can't see surface details. And it's going to

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take the LUCY mission to go to these targets

346
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and see what they're really made of and what

347
00:14:30.340 --> 00:14:31.020
they look like.

348
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Stuart Gary: Foreign.

349
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From NASA tv we heard from LUCY Principal

350
00:14:41.920 --> 00:14:44.360
Investigator Hal Levison and LUCY Deputy

351
00:14:44.360 --> 00:14:46.340
Principal Investigator Kathy Olkin, both uh,

352
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from the Southwest Research Institute in

353
00:14:48.680 --> 00:14:50.000
Boulder, Colorado.

354
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This is space time still to come.

355
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NASA says Boeing's trouble plagued Starliner

356
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spacecraft won't be carrying any astronauts

357
00:14:58.120 --> 00:15:00.040
on its next flight to the International Space

358
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Station. And later in the science report,

359
00:15:02.590 --> 00:15:05.070
neurologists have identified the five major

360
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epochs of brain structure over the course of

361
00:15:07.750 --> 00:15:10.550
a human lifetime. All that and more still to

362
00:15:10.550 --> 00:15:12.270
come on space time.

363
00:15:27.880 --> 00:15:30.400
NASA says Boeing's trouble plagued Starliner

364
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spacecraft won't be carrying any astronauts

365
00:15:32.640 --> 00:15:34.760
on its next flight to the International Space

366
00:15:34.760 --> 00:15:37.360
Station. Instead, the mission will be

367
00:15:37.360 --> 00:15:40.320
limited to cargo and supplies only. The

368
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decision comes eight months after the first

369
00:15:42.519 --> 00:15:44.760
and only manned Starliner flight saw the

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capsule return to Earth empty, with its crew

371
00:15:47.160 --> 00:15:48.960
left stranded on the International Space

372
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Station for more than nine months. That

373
00:15:51.360 --> 00:15:53.080
followed a series of issues with the

374
00:15:53.080 --> 00:15:55.040
vehicle's propulsion and orbital maneuvering

375
00:15:55.040 --> 00:15:57.320
systems, as well as its helium pressurization

376
00:15:57.480 --> 00:15:59.860
system. And it's not the first time

377
00:16:00.020 --> 00:16:02.780
Starliner suffered issues. Faulty

378
00:16:02.780 --> 00:16:04.780
computer programming prevented the first

379
00:16:04.780 --> 00:16:06.820
Starliner mission to the space station from

380
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even reaching its target. And more faulty

381
00:16:09.260 --> 00:16:11.220
computer programming, which luckily was

382
00:16:11.220 --> 00:16:13.100
corrected in time, would have caused the

383
00:16:13.100 --> 00:16:15.260
Starliner to be destroyed during its re

384
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entry. There have been other problems with

385
00:16:17.540 --> 00:16:19.380
corrosion in the spacecraft's propulsion

386
00:16:19.380 --> 00:16:21.540
system as well. Issues with the strength of

387
00:16:21.540 --> 00:16:23.900
the parachute webbing, the concerns over the

388
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safety of insulation on the spacecraft's

389
00:16:26.220 --> 00:16:28.160
wiring harness, and problems with

390
00:16:28.160 --> 00:16:30.280
environmental controls inside the

391
00:16:30.280 --> 00:16:33.200
spacecraft's cabin. For Starliner, it's

392
00:16:33.200 --> 00:16:35.200
been a case of one problem after another

393
00:16:35.920 --> 00:16:38.920
and it seems NASA's had enough. As well as

394
00:16:38.920 --> 00:16:40.720
limiting its next flight to cargo only,

395
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NASA's also slashed the total number of

396
00:16:42.880 --> 00:16:45.200
Starliner missions down from 6 to 4.

397
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As for Starliner's next flight, that's the

398
00:16:47.760 --> 00:16:49.720
cargo mission. It's currently slated for

399
00:16:49.720 --> 00:16:52.600
April next year. If that goes well, then a

400
00:16:52.600 --> 00:16:54.280
manned mission could happen towards the end

401
00:16:54.280 --> 00:16:56.650
of the year. The remaining two flights will

402
00:16:56.650 --> 00:16:58.530
also carry crew to the International Space

403
00:16:58.530 --> 00:17:00.690
Station until the orbiting outpost is

404
00:17:00.690 --> 00:17:02.250
decommissioned in 2030.

405
00:17:03.530 --> 00:17:06.090
Starliner was one of two spacecraft selected

406
00:17:06.090 --> 00:17:09.010
by NASA back in 2014 as part of the agency's

407
00:17:09.010 --> 00:17:10.970
commercial crew program to transport

408
00:17:11.050 --> 00:17:12.810
astronauts to and um, from m the space

409
00:17:12.810 --> 00:17:15.570
station. But unlike the other successful

410
00:17:15.570 --> 00:17:18.290
applicant, SpaceX's Dragon spacecraft, which

411
00:17:18.290 --> 00:17:20.850
has performed flawlessly, Boeing's Starliner

412
00:17:20.850 --> 00:17:22.810
has suffered from continuous failures and

413
00:17:22.810 --> 00:17:25.589
quality control blunders. It's been a

414
00:17:25.589 --> 00:17:27.389
costly disaster for Boeing.

415
00:17:28.109 --> 00:17:30.629
SpaceX launched its first mannedragon mission

416
00:17:30.629 --> 00:17:32.989
to the space station for NASA in 2020.

417
00:17:33.389 --> 00:17:35.869
It's now completed 12 crew change missions,

418
00:17:35.949 --> 00:17:37.989
as well as several private missions into

419
00:17:37.989 --> 00:17:39.549
orbit. This is

420
00:17:39.549 --> 00:17:49.889
spacetime

421
00:17:50.040 --> 00:17:50.360
Foreign.

422
00:17:57.560 --> 00:17:59.360
Look at some of the other stories making use

423
00:17:59.360 --> 00:18:01.400
in Science this week with the Science report.

424
00:18:02.200 --> 00:18:04.760
Neuroscientists have identified five major

425
00:18:04.760 --> 00:18:07.360
epochs of brain structure over the course of

426
00:18:07.360 --> 00:18:10.280
a human lifetime. The findings, reported in

427
00:18:10.280 --> 00:18:12.800
the journal Nature Communications, show how

428
00:18:12.800 --> 00:18:15.400
human brains rewire themselves to support

429
00:18:15.400 --> 00:18:17.960
different ways of thinking as people grow,

430
00:18:18.120 --> 00:18:20.330
mature, and ultimately decline.

431
00:18:20.970 --> 00:18:23.530
A study led by Cambridge University compared

432
00:18:23.530 --> 00:18:26.330
the brains of 3,802 people between

433
00:18:26.330 --> 00:18:28.970
0 and 90 years of age. Using MRI

434
00:18:28.970 --> 00:18:31.050
scans, which map neural connections by

435
00:18:31.050 --> 00:18:33.050
tracking how water molecules move through

436
00:18:33.050 --> 00:18:36.050
brain tissue. They found the brain structure

437
00:18:36.050 --> 00:18:38.290
for an average human life is split up into

438
00:18:38.290 --> 00:18:40.770
four pivotal turning points between birth and

439
00:18:40.770 --> 00:18:43.530
death. It seems childhood brain topology

440
00:18:43.770 --> 00:18:46.290
runs from birth until a turning point at

441
00:18:46.290 --> 00:18:48.950
around age 9. That's when it transitions to

442
00:18:48.950 --> 00:18:51.790
an adolescent phase. That's an era that lasts

443
00:18:51.790 --> 00:18:54.270
up until the age of around 32 on average.

444
00:18:54.590 --> 00:18:57.190
The brain's neural wiring then shifts into a

445
00:18:57.190 --> 00:18:59.630
more adult mode. This is the longest era,

446
00:18:59.630 --> 00:19:02.350
which can last over three decades. A third

447
00:19:02.350 --> 00:19:04.950
turning point, around the age of 66, marks

448
00:19:04.950 --> 00:19:07.430
the start of an early aging phase of brain

449
00:19:07.430 --> 00:19:10.270
architecture. And finally, the late aging

450
00:19:10.270 --> 00:19:13.030
brain takes shape around the age of 83

451
00:19:13.030 --> 00:19:16.020
years old. So what's going on

452
00:19:16.020 --> 00:19:18.220
inside the noggin? Well, during the early

453
00:19:18.220 --> 00:19:20.580
childhood phase, the brain undergoes network

454
00:19:20.580 --> 00:19:23.220
consolidation as a wealth of synapses that's

455
00:19:23.220 --> 00:19:25.220
the connections between neurons overproduced

456
00:19:25.220 --> 00:19:27.540
in a baby's brain are whittled down, with

457
00:19:27.540 --> 00:19:30.059
only the more active ones surviving across

458
00:19:30.059 --> 00:19:32.500
the whole human brain connections rewire in

459
00:19:32.500 --> 00:19:34.740
the same pattern from birth until about nine

460
00:19:34.740 --> 00:19:37.460
years of age. Meanwhile, grey and white

461
00:19:37.460 --> 00:19:39.910
matter grow rapidly in volume, so that

462
00:19:39.910 --> 00:19:41.550
cortical thickness, that's the distance

463
00:19:41.550 --> 00:19:43.510
between the outer gray matter and the inner

464
00:19:43.510 --> 00:19:45.670
white matter, reaches a peak, and cortical

465
00:19:45.670 --> 00:19:47.710
folding, that's the characteristic ridges on

466
00:19:47.710 --> 00:19:50.630
the outer brain stabilizes by the first

467
00:19:50.630 --> 00:19:53.030
turning point at around the age of nine, the

468
00:19:53.030 --> 00:19:55.190
brain is experiencing a step change in

469
00:19:55.190 --> 00:19:57.550
cognitive capacity as well as an increased

470
00:19:57.550 --> 00:20:00.430
risk of mental health disorders. The second

471
00:20:00.430 --> 00:20:02.590
epoch of the brain, that's the adolescent

472
00:20:02.590 --> 00:20:05.030
era, sees white matter continue to grow in

473
00:20:05.030 --> 00:20:07.270
volume. So organization of the brain's

474
00:20:07.270 --> 00:20:09.150
communications network is increasingly

475
00:20:09.150 --> 00:20:11.660
refined as measured by the diffusion of water

476
00:20:11.660 --> 00:20:14.580
in the scans. This error is defined by

477
00:20:14.580 --> 00:20:16.700
the efficiency of connections both within

478
00:20:16.700 --> 00:20:18.780
specific regions as well as rapid

479
00:20:18.780 --> 00:20:20.740
communication right across the whole brain,

480
00:20:20.740 --> 00:20:22.660
which is related to enhanced cognitive

481
00:20:22.660 --> 00:20:25.260
performance. Neural efficiency is well

482
00:20:25.260 --> 00:20:27.380
connected by short pathways and the

483
00:20:27.380 --> 00:20:29.420
adolescent era is the only one in which this

484
00:20:29.420 --> 00:20:31.820
efficiency is increasing. The authors say

485
00:20:31.820 --> 00:20:33.940
these developments of the brain peak in the

486
00:20:33.940 --> 00:20:36.620
early 30s, which is the strongest topological

487
00:20:36.620 --> 00:20:39.560
turning point for the entire lifespan. At

488
00:20:39.560 --> 00:20:42.440
age 32, the longest era, that of adulthood,

489
00:20:42.440 --> 00:20:45.440
begins, Brain architecture stabilizes

490
00:20:45.440 --> 00:20:47.440
compared to previous phases with no major

491
00:20:47.440 --> 00:20:49.840
turning points for 30 years and corresponds

492
00:20:49.840 --> 00:20:51.560
with a plateau uh in intelligence and

493
00:20:51.560 --> 00:20:54.480
personality. They also found segregation is

494
00:20:54.480 --> 00:20:56.320
more noticeable during this epoch as

495
00:20:56.320 --> 00:20:58.440
different regions of the brain slowly start

496
00:20:58.440 --> 00:21:01.400
to become more compartmentalized. The turning

497
00:21:01.400 --> 00:21:03.880
point at age 66 sees reduced

498
00:21:03.880 --> 00:21:06.240
connectivity as white matter starts to

499
00:21:06.240 --> 00:21:08.800
degenerate. The last turning point comes

500
00:21:08.800 --> 00:21:11.440
around the age of 83 when the brain structure

501
00:21:11.440 --> 00:21:14.120
shifts from global to local regions as neural

502
00:21:14.120 --> 00:21:15.640
connectivity declines.

503
00:21:17.160 --> 00:21:19.200
A long term study has shown that water

504
00:21:19.200 --> 00:21:21.160
fluoridation doesn't have any negative

505
00:21:21.160 --> 00:21:23.880
effects on brain development. In fact, the

506
00:21:23.880 --> 00:21:25.640
findings reported in the journal Science

507
00:21:25.640 --> 00:21:28.120
Advances actually found a slight boost in

508
00:21:28.120 --> 00:21:30.560
cognition in children. Previous studies

509
00:21:30.560 --> 00:21:32.560
looked at exposure to very high levels of

510
00:21:32.560 --> 00:21:34.760
fluoride far uh beyond recommended standards.

511
00:21:34.840 --> 00:21:37.200
So the authors of this new research wanted to

512
00:21:37.200 --> 00:21:39.420
study levels representative of what would

513
00:21:39.420 --> 00:21:42.300
usually find in their tap water. They looked

514
00:21:42.300 --> 00:21:44.300
at language and math test results from around

515
00:21:44.300 --> 00:21:47.020
58,000 United States high school kids in

516
00:21:47.020 --> 00:21:49.740
1980 and the water fluoridation levels they

517
00:21:49.740 --> 00:21:51.780
would have experienced since conception.

518
00:21:52.180 --> 00:21:54.180
After accounting for other factors, they

519
00:21:54.180 --> 00:21:56.260
found kids continuously exposed to at least

520
00:21:56.260 --> 00:21:58.980
0.7 milligrams per liter of water fluoride

521
00:21:58.980 --> 00:22:01.260
had better test results followed by those

522
00:22:01.260 --> 00:22:03.340
exposed to similar levels for just part of

523
00:22:03.340 --> 00:22:06.230
their childhood. China's

524
00:22:06.230 --> 00:22:08.110
People Liberation army has reported the

525
00:22:08.110 --> 00:22:10.670
successful test of a new type of non nuclear

526
00:22:10.670 --> 00:22:13.670
hydrogen bomb. A report in the Chinese

527
00:22:13.670 --> 00:22:15.790
Language Journal of Projectiles, Rockets,

528
00:22:15.790 --> 00:22:17.910
Missiles and Guidance claims the new weapon

529
00:22:17.910 --> 00:22:20.430
generates a white hot fireball that can last

530
00:22:20.509 --> 00:22:23.150
15 times longer than a TNT blast.

531
00:22:23.630 --> 00:22:26.110
The 2 kilogram device uses magnesium

532
00:22:26.110 --> 00:22:28.350
hydride, a magnesium based solid state

533
00:22:28.350 --> 00:22:30.950
hydrogen material which generated a fireball

534
00:22:30.950 --> 00:22:33.150
of over 1000 degrees Celsius.

535
00:22:33.920 --> 00:22:35.720
This material stores considerably more

536
00:22:35.720 --> 00:22:37.880
hydrogen than a pressurized tank and was

537
00:22:37.880 --> 00:22:39.800
originally developed to bring the gas to off

538
00:22:39.800 --> 00:22:41.640
grid areas where it could then be used to

539
00:22:41.640 --> 00:22:43.760
power fuel cells for clean electricity and

540
00:22:43.760 --> 00:22:46.080
heat. When activated by conventional

541
00:22:46.080 --> 00:22:48.680
explosives, the magnesium hydride bomb

542
00:22:48.680 --> 00:22:51.040
underwent rapid thermal decomposition,

543
00:22:51.200 --> 00:22:53.720
releasing hydrogen gas that ignited into a

544
00:22:53.720 --> 00:22:56.440
sustained, rapidly spreading inferno. The

545
00:22:56.440 --> 00:22:59.160
chain reaction begins when detonation shock

546
00:22:59.160 --> 00:23:02.040
waves fracture magnesium hydride into micron

547
00:23:02.040 --> 00:23:04.480
scale particles, exposing fresh surfaces

548
00:23:05.420 --> 00:23:07.260
under constrained detonation peak

549
00:23:07.260 --> 00:23:09.258
overpressure reached 428.43

550
00:23:09.462 --> 00:23:12.340
kPa at 2 metres, about 40%

551
00:23:12.340 --> 00:23:14.780
that of TNT's blast force, but with a far

552
00:23:14.780 --> 00:23:16.540
greater heat projection range.

553
00:23:18.060 --> 00:23:20.700
Well, the doomsday countdown to digital ID

554
00:23:20.939 --> 00:23:23.820
is now on. This time next week,

555
00:23:23.900 --> 00:23:26.220
Australia's controversial new social media

556
00:23:26.220 --> 00:23:28.620
bans for children under the age of 16 will

557
00:23:28.620 --> 00:23:31.380
come into effect. The world first legislation

558
00:23:31.380 --> 00:23:33.660
is being marketed as a way to protect kids

559
00:23:33.660 --> 00:23:36.560
from bullying, but it doesn't stop kids

560
00:23:36.560 --> 00:23:38.840
using left wing social media platforms like

561
00:23:38.840 --> 00:23:41.600
bluesky or for that matter, chat rooms in

562
00:23:41.600 --> 00:23:43.680
many of the most popular computer games.

563
00:23:44.880 --> 00:23:47.680
In reality, it's a thinly disguised Trojan

564
00:23:47.680 --> 00:23:50.559
horse designed to force all Australian adults

565
00:23:50.559 --> 00:23:53.000
to adopt a digital ID as if they want to

566
00:23:53.000 --> 00:23:54.960
retain access to their own social media

567
00:23:54.960 --> 00:23:57.640
accounts. It's a way around the public's

568
00:23:57.640 --> 00:24:00.200
objection to the defeated Australia Card ID

569
00:24:00.200 --> 00:24:03.120
scheme of the 1980s, which was overwhelmingly

570
00:24:03.120 --> 00:24:06.050
rejected by the people. So why

571
00:24:06.050 --> 00:24:08.890
the fear mongering? Well, digital ID

572
00:24:08.970 --> 00:24:11.210
will allow faceless bureaucrats, security

573
00:24:11.210 --> 00:24:13.570
organizations and politicians to develop a,

574
00:24:13.570 --> 00:24:15.370
uh, Big Brother style digital link,

575
00:24:15.370 --> 00:24:17.490
connecting everything, monitoring everything

576
00:24:17.490 --> 00:24:20.370
you do, where you go, what you look at and

577
00:24:20.370 --> 00:24:23.170
even what you say, in the process providing

578
00:24:23.170 --> 00:24:25.250
fact based insights into what you're

579
00:24:25.250 --> 00:24:27.450
thinking. Then there's the issue of security

580
00:24:27.690 --> 00:24:30.130
and how easily your digital ID and all it

581
00:24:30.130 --> 00:24:32.980
contains about you can be hacked. Your

582
00:24:32.980 --> 00:24:35.740
digital ID will be the Australian answer to

583
00:24:35.740 --> 00:24:38.180
Beijing's social credit scheme, where those

584
00:24:38.180 --> 00:24:40.460
not considered worthy by China's Communist

585
00:24:40.460 --> 00:24:42.540
Party face restrictions in where they can

586
00:24:42.540 --> 00:24:44.620
live, where they can go, what they have

587
00:24:44.620 --> 00:24:47.060
access to, how they can travel and where

588
00:24:47.060 --> 00:24:50.020
their children can go to school. Australians

589
00:24:50.020 --> 00:24:52.020
saw the first hints of what's to come during

590
00:24:52.020 --> 00:24:54.620
the COVID pandemic, when voluntary digital ID

591
00:24:54.620 --> 00:24:56.820
schemes were repeatedly used by police to

592
00:24:56.820 --> 00:24:59.570
track people's movements. Technology editor

593
00:24:59.570 --> 00:25:02.410
Alex Zahara Vroit from TechAdvice Life says,

594
00:25:02.410 --> 00:25:05.210
In simple terms, this new digital ID scheme

595
00:25:05.210 --> 00:25:08.170
will be a key step in the erosion of people's

596
00:25:08.170 --> 00:25:10.970
rights. It's only one small slice,

597
00:25:11.210 --> 00:25:13.770
but step by step those rights will

598
00:25:13.770 --> 00:25:16.410
disappear and it all starts next week.

599
00:25:16.490 --> 00:25:18.530
Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Look, there seems to be this concerted effort

600
00:25:18.530 --> 00:25:21.090
globally to want to set up digital id and

601
00:25:21.090 --> 00:25:23.330
this clearly is something that will remove

602
00:25:23.330 --> 00:25:25.130
anonymity from the Internet. Everything you

603
00:25:25.130 --> 00:25:26.730
do will be tracked. And it's all being done

604
00:25:26.730 --> 00:25:29.050
under the guise of won't somebody protect the

605
00:25:29.050 --> 00:25:31.070
children? And, you know, Roblox, for example,

606
00:25:31.070 --> 00:25:33.070
has algorithms. You've got to take a photo of

607
00:25:33.070 --> 00:25:34.750
your face and they're looking at the various

608
00:25:34.750 --> 00:25:36.310
things you've been doing in the system. But

609
00:25:36.310 --> 00:25:38.430
ultimately we're relying upon algorithms to

610
00:25:38.430 --> 00:25:40.110
figure these things out. And the only real

611
00:25:40.110 --> 00:25:42.230
way of doing it is to get some sort of an ID

612
00:25:42.310 --> 00:25:44.630
from a parent, from, you know, a passport,

613
00:25:44.790 --> 00:25:46.990
something to prove that you are of a certain

614
00:25:46.990 --> 00:25:48.870
age. But again, this is going to remove

615
00:25:48.950 --> 00:25:51.670
anonymity from the Internet and everything

616
00:25:51.830 --> 00:25:53.590
that you will do will be tracked. And so

617
00:25:53.590 --> 00:25:56.430
there is a movement now to not comply with

618
00:25:56.430 --> 00:25:58.590
digital id, but this is happening globally.

619
00:25:58.590 --> 00:26:00.840
Around the world. Governments are all coming

620
00:26:00.840 --> 00:26:03.160
together to put these social media bans in

621
00:26:03.160 --> 00:26:04.880
place. Malaysia is doing it, the UK wants

622
00:26:04.880 --> 00:26:07.440
digital ID. And I, uh, don't know if VPNs are

623
00:26:07.440 --> 00:26:08.600
going to be enough. There needs to be a

624
00:26:08.600 --> 00:26:11.120
pushback from the public to say no. And even

625
00:26:11.120 --> 00:26:12.840
in Australia we have a couple of young kids

626
00:26:12.840 --> 00:26:14.840
who are taking the government to the High

627
00:26:14.840 --> 00:26:17.000
court to have the digital ID system blocked.

628
00:26:17.000 --> 00:26:19.240
So this seems to be a watershed moment in,

629
00:26:19.280 --> 00:26:21.400
um, the, uh, modern civilisation.

630
00:26:21.560 --> 00:26:24.280
Stuart Gary: Is this really part of a surreptitious

631
00:26:24.280 --> 00:26:26.920
effort by governments to just gain control

632
00:26:27.080 --> 00:26:29.240
over everything you have access to all the

633
00:26:29.240 --> 00:26:30.120
information you get?

634
00:26:30.370 --> 00:26:32.410
Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Well, look, it certainly seems that way. I

635
00:26:32.410 --> 00:26:33.970
mean, everything that the governments have

636
00:26:33.970 --> 00:26:35.810
been trying to do, even in Australia we had

637
00:26:35.810 --> 00:26:38.130
conservative and socialist governments and

638
00:26:38.130 --> 00:26:40.410
they tried all sorts of firewalls and they

639
00:26:40.410 --> 00:26:42.570
tried various things to try and control

640
00:26:42.570 --> 00:26:42.930
people.

641
00:26:43.010 --> 00:26:45.490
Stuart Gary: Yeah, we had the attempt of an Australia card

642
00:26:45.490 --> 00:26:48.130
years ago and, uh, the citizenry

643
00:26:48.130 --> 00:26:50.410
resoundedly said no to that. But it doesn't

644
00:26:50.410 --> 00:26:52.970
stop the bureaucrats or the politicians from

645
00:26:52.970 --> 00:26:54.850
wanting to implement that. We had a situation

646
00:26:55.010 --> 00:26:57.770
where we had special ID for Covid that

647
00:26:57.770 --> 00:26:59.960
simply gave the police a chance to, to track

648
00:26:59.960 --> 00:27:00.840
everyone's movements.

649
00:27:00.840 --> 00:27:03.670
Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Yeah, yeah. Papers, please. As we saw in, uh,

650
00:27:03.670 --> 00:27:06.080
Nazi Germany. Look, the problem is that the

651
00:27:06.080 --> 00:27:08.760
unelected deep state globally wants control.

652
00:27:08.920 --> 00:27:10.720
They want to stay in power, they want to do

653
00:27:10.720 --> 00:27:12.440
the things they have been accused of doing,

654
00:27:12.650 --> 00:27:14.880
um, and maintain power and debase the

655
00:27:14.880 --> 00:27:16.600
currency and do all these things that some

656
00:27:16.600 --> 00:27:18.560
claim are conspiracies. But it's clear that

657
00:27:18.560 --> 00:27:20.840
if you can maintain your position of power

658
00:27:20.840 --> 00:27:22.840
and you can worm your way through the system,

659
00:27:22.840 --> 00:27:24.320
why wouldn't you do it? And we've seen that

660
00:27:24.320 --> 00:27:26.400
time and again throughout history and in the

661
00:27:26.400 --> 00:27:28.280
21st century with all of the digital

662
00:27:28.280 --> 00:27:30.720
technologies now at the disposal of big tech.

663
00:27:30.720 --> 00:27:32.340
But Also government. Well, we're seeing them

664
00:27:32.340 --> 00:27:34.300
work together and trying to hold people down.

665
00:27:34.300 --> 00:27:36.460
I mean, thank goodness for the United States

666
00:27:36.460 --> 00:27:38.780
and their First Amendment. The deep space is

667
00:27:38.780 --> 00:27:41.500
fighting back. And it's up to us as

668
00:27:41.500 --> 00:27:43.940
citizens, global citizens, to say no. We

669
00:27:43.940 --> 00:27:46.900
don't want unelected people to usurp

670
00:27:46.980 --> 00:27:48.180
our privacy.

671
00:27:48.260 --> 00:27:51.020
Stuart Gary: We're sort of seeing human rights disappear

672
00:27:51.020 --> 00:27:52.900
one by one. And it's not that they're being

673
00:27:52.900 --> 00:27:55.180
taken from us. The citizenry are gladly

674
00:27:55.180 --> 00:27:57.460
giving them up, it seems, for an easier life.

675
00:27:57.460 --> 00:27:59.660
Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Benjamin Franklin said that if you give up a

676
00:27:59.660 --> 00:28:01.680
little liberty for a little security, then

677
00:28:01.680 --> 00:28:04.280
you deserve neither. And this is where

678
00:28:04.360 --> 00:28:07.240
people abdicating their responsibilities

679
00:28:07.320 --> 00:28:10.320
as human beings to Big Brother is the fast

680
00:28:10.320 --> 00:28:12.080
track to dystopia. I mean, that's why we had

681
00:28:12.080 --> 00:28:14.160
Animal Farm. That's why we had 1984 from

682
00:28:14.160 --> 00:28:15.960
George Orwell. That's why we've had so many

683
00:28:15.960 --> 00:28:18.600
movies and TV shows about dystopia, because

684
00:28:18.840 --> 00:28:20.560
people are worried. I mean, these are

685
00:28:20.560 --> 00:28:22.920
warnings to ourselves to not let this sort of

686
00:28:22.920 --> 00:28:24.960
thing happen to us. We live at a time where,

687
00:28:24.960 --> 00:28:27.480
as Ronald Reagan said, freedom and liberty is

688
00:28:27.480 --> 00:28:29.480
not passed down through the bloodline, but

689
00:28:29.480 --> 00:28:31.200
must be fought for and protected by every

690
00:28:31.280 --> 00:28:34.120
generation. And, uh, we stand at the point

691
00:28:34.120 --> 00:28:36.360
at which the future generations of this

692
00:28:36.360 --> 00:28:38.280
planet could be living under dystopia. Let's

693
00:28:38.280 --> 00:28:39.120
hope that that doesn't happen.

694
00:28:39.200 --> 00:28:41.440
Stuart Gary: That's Alex Zaharov-Reutt Roy from TechAdvice

695
00:28:41.680 --> 00:28:44.440
Live. And just in case you think advanced

696
00:28:44.440 --> 00:28:46.440
algorithms will circumvent all the problems

697
00:28:46.440 --> 00:28:49.240
of digital IDs, think again. Remember,

698
00:28:49.240 --> 00:28:51.440
these are the same sophisticated algorithms

699
00:28:51.440 --> 00:28:53.600
which keep flagging our space time posts,

700
00:28:53.600 --> 00:28:56.070
displaying astronomical images of exoplanets

701
00:28:56.300 --> 00:28:58.700
as possible pornography. I mean,

702
00:28:58.780 --> 00:29:01.140
granted, it is space porn, but that's not

703
00:29:01.140 --> 00:29:03.660
what the algorithms are thinking. This is

704
00:29:03.660 --> 00:29:04.380
space time.

705
00:29:19.900 --> 00:29:22.750
And that's the show for now. Space Time

706
00:29:22.750 --> 00:29:24.790
is available every Monday, Wednesday and

707
00:29:24.790 --> 00:29:27.670
Friday through bytes.com, soundcloud,

708
00:29:27.750 --> 00:29:30.110
YouTube Music, your favorite podcast download

709
00:29:30.110 --> 00:29:31.270
provider, and from

710
00:29:31.270 --> 00:29:33.430
spacetimewithstuartgarry.com

711
00:29:33.990 --> 00:29:35.950
spacetime's also broadcast through the

712
00:29:35.950 --> 00:29:38.230
National Science foundation on Science Zone

713
00:29:38.230 --> 00:29:41.230
Radio and on both iHeartradio and TuneIn

714
00:29:41.230 --> 00:29:43.870
radio. And you can help to support our show

715
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716
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of promotional merchandising goodies, or by

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718
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719
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720
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bonus audio content which doesn't go to air,

721
00:29:58.000 --> 00:30:00.480
access to our exclusive Facebook group, and

722
00:30:00.480 --> 00:30:02.520
other rewards. Just go to

723
00:30:02.520 --> 00:30:05.000
spacetimewithstuartgarry.com for full

724
00:30:05.000 --> 00:30:05.680
details.

725
00:30:06.320 --> 00:30:08.240
Alex Zaharov-Reutt: You've been listening to Space Time with

726
00:30:08.240 --> 00:30:10.480
Stuart Gary Gary. This has been another

727
00:30:10.480 --> 00:30:13.440
quality podcast production from bytes.com.