Galactic Secrets Uncovered: The Milky Way's Orphan Galaxies and Parker Solar Probe's Stunning Solar Images

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Stuart Gary: This is space Time Series 28, episode

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94 for broadcast on 6 August

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2025. Coming up on Space Time,

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a new study says the Milky Way could have far more

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satellite galaxies than previously thought.

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NASA's Mars Curiosity rover reaches new heights on

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the Red Planet's Mount Sharp. And NASA releases

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the closest ever images of the sun taken by

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the Parker solar probe. All that and more coming

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up, uh, on SpaceTime.

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Voice Over Guy: Welcome to SpaceTime with Stuart Gary

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Our Milky Way galaxy could have more satellite

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galaxies surrounding it than astronomers had previously

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predicted or been able to observe.

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Cosmologists used a new technique which combines high

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resolution supercomputer simulations together with novel

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mathematical modeling in order to predict the existence of up

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to 100 small dwarf galaxies orbiting around the

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Milky Way. Of course, the best known

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galaxies which we see orbiting the Milky Way are, uh, the Large and

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Small Magellanic Clouds and the Sagittarius dwarf

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galaxy, which is currently in the process of crashing through the Milky

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Way. Right now, the nearest dwarf galaxy to the

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Milky Way is the Ursa Major III dwarf throidal

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galaxy. But if these new hypothesized galaxies

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are eventually observed using telescopes, then they could provide

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strong support for the so called Lambda cold dark

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matter model, which astronomers currently use to explain the

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large scale structure of the universe and how galaxies

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form. The model suggests that ordinary

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matter, the stuff stars, planets, houses, dogs,

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cats and people are made from, really only represents about

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5% of the total mass energy budget of the

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universe. Cold dark, uh, matter, an

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invisible substance which we can't see, but which we know it

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exists because we can see its influence on regular matter

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makes up a further 25% of the total mass energy

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budget of the cosmos. And the remaining

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70% is the even more mysterious dark

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energy, a force which we know exists because we can

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see it's causing the accelerated expansion of the universe

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and will ultimately determine the universe's fate.

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Now, according to the lambda cold dark matter model,

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galaxies form at the centers of gigantic clumps of

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dark matter known as. Most galaxies

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in the universe are low mass dwarf galaxies, the majority

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of which are, uh, satellites orbiting around more massive galaxies

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like Andromeda and our own Milky Way. The

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existence of these enigmatic objects has long posed challenges

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to the lambda cold dark matter model. Many

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more Milky Way companion galaxies should exist than what

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cosmological simulations have so far produced or

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what astronomers have so far been able to see.

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The new research shows that the Milky Way's missing

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satellites are extremely faint galaxies, stripped

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almost entirely of their dark matter halos by the

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gravity of the Milky Way's own dark matter halo.

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These so called orphan galaxies are lost in the

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simulations, but they should have survived in the real

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universe. Using their new technique,

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astronomers were able to track the abundance, distribution and

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properties of these Milky Way orphan galaxies, showing that many

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more Milky Way satellites should exist and be

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observable today. The authors hope that new

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advances in telescopes and instruments such as the

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Vera Rubin Observatory will give astronomers the ability

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to detect these very faint objects, bringing them into

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our view for the first time. The study's lead author,

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AH Isabel Santos Santos from Durham University, says

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astronomers know the Milky way has some 60 confirmed

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companion satellite galaxies, but there should be dozens

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more of these very faint galaxies orbiting around the Milky Way

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at very close distances. The

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concept of the Lambda cold dark matter model is the

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cornerstone of our understanding of the universe.

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It has led to the standard model of cosmology and

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is the most widely accepted model for describing the universe's

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evolution and structure on large scale. The so

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called cosmic web where galaxies, galaxy

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clusters and superclusters are spread along fine

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filaments surrounding huge voids of near empty

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space. The model has already passed multiple tests,

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but it's recently been challenged by puzzling observational data

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on dwarf galaxies. The Durham University

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researchers say that even the best existing cosmological

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simulations, which include gas and star formation in

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addition to dark matter, don't have the resolution needed to

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study galaxies as faint as those astronomers are now starting

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to discover close to the Milky. These

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simulations also lack the precision required to follow

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the evolution of the small dark matter halos that host these

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dwarf galaxies as they orbit around the Milky Way,

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and this leads to the artificial disruption of some

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halos, leaving galaxies orphaned. The results

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showed that the halos of dark matter which may host the

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satellite galaxy, have been orbiting around the central Milky Way

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halo for most of the age of the universe, leading to

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the stripping of their dark matter and stellar mass and

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rendering what's left extremely small and faint.

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As a result, the authors predict that the total number of

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satellite galaxies of any brightness likely to exist

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around the Milky way is around 80 or potentially

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even up to 100 or more currently known.

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The authors are putting a special emphasis on the approximately

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30 newly discovered tiny Milky Way satellite

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candidate galaxies that are extremely faint and small.

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But they say it's still unclear if these are dwarf galaxies embedded

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in the dark matter halo or their globular clusters

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collections of self gravitating stars which either

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formed in stellar nurseries or or the cores of small

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galaxies which have already merged with the Milky Way

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this is space time still to come.

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NASA's Mars Curiosity Rover, uh, reaches new heights

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on the Red Planet's Mount Sharp. And the Parker solar

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probe snaps its closest ever images of the

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Sun. All that and more still to come on, uh,

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space time.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Foreign.

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Stuart Gary: NASA's Mars Curiosity rover has reached new

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heights in its ongoing exploration of the intricate

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boxwork terrain on the slopes of Mount Sharp, the 5

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1/2 kilometer high central peak in the Red

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Planet Scale crater. The six wheeled car

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sized mobile laboratory has now arrived at the base of

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a steep ridge near a hollow, providing increasingly

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detailed views of these unique Martian formations.

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It's thought the terrain was formed by groundwater when it

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encountered crisscrossing low ridges, some just a few

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centimeters tall and arranged in what geologists call

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a boxwork pattern. The bedrock below these

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ridges likely formed as groundwater trickling through

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the rock left behind minerals that accumulated in cracks

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and fissures, hardening and becoming cement like.

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Then eons of sandblasting by Martian

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winds wore away the rocks, but not the cement

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like minerals, resulting in networks of resistant

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ridges that give the geology the boxwork name.

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The research marks a new phase in Curiosity's campaign

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to analyze the composition, structure and origins of the

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rigid terrain. To get there,

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Curiosity first needed to scale a steep 11 meter

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incline to reach the rim leading to the boxwork region.

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Here, the rover deployed its MASTCAM and CHEMCAM

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instruments to capture mosaics of features including the El

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Corral, Champar and Mizon ridges.

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It then drove 15 metres closer to the Meson ridge for

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a more detailed inspection. Other targets were also

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studied using ChemCam's laser to determine the composition

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and texture of the nodular bedrock. And it

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wasn't just the rocks. Curiosity also continued to

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undertake atmospheric observations, including a

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360 degree dust devil survey.

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Initial observations using the NAVCAM and MASTCAM

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instruments quantified dust opacity, while a large

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MASTCAM mosaic detailed the ridge beneath the rover.

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Kencamp was used to focus on a vein of minerals named

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Vicuna, while contact Science instruments

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examined nodular bedrock targets Toral

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and silla, allowing uh, scientists to compare

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ridgetop chemistry with the material. In nearby lower

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areas. Scientists also examined more distant

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sedimentary boxwork structures and carried out atmospheric

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observations, analyzing the day and night, uh, chemistry and

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isotopic makeup of the Martian atmosphere.

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Later, NAVCAM assessed Gale Crater's dust opacy while

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MASTCAM performed sunwar dust measurements.

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Curiosity also examined a weird nodular rock

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called Lake Titicaca using its laser

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spectrograph, followed by a telescopic mosaic of sediment

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Layers on the Meshimok Butte. This

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is space time still to come.

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NASA's Parker Solar Probe snaps its closest ever

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images of the Sun. And later in the science report,

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warnings that hail storms could hit Australian cities harder and more

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often than ever before due to climate change.

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All that and more still to come on space

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time.

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On uh, one of its recent record breaking passes close to the

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Sun, NASA's Parker Solar Probe captured some

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stunning new images from within the solar solar

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atmosphere. The newly released observations were taken

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closer to the sun than ever before and they're helping

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scientists better understand the Sun's influence across the

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Solar system, including space weather events which can affect

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life here on Earth. The images show the very

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region where space weather threats to Earth are thought to

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begin. The new data will help astronomers

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vastly improve their geomagnetic storm predictions.

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And that'll help ensure the safety of crew in space as well as

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technology both on the Earth and throughout the Solar system.

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Now these specific images were taken during Parker Solar

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Probe's closest approach to the sun back on December

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24th as it skimmed through the corona, the Sun's

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outer atmosphere. In the days around

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perihelion, it collected data with an array of

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scientific instruments including wispr, the Wide Field

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Imager for Solar Probe. The new WISPR

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images reveal the corona and solar wind, the

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constant stream of electrically charged particles which flow out

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from the sun and spread right across the Solar system.

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The solar wind expands as it travels through the solar

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system and it results in some wide ranging

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effects. Uh, together with outbursts of

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material, plasma and magnetic currents from the sun, it

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helps generate auroras, strips planetary

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atmospheres and induces electric currents that can

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overwhelm power grids on Earth and affect communications

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and navigation systems. The whisper images

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are giving scientists a closer look at what happens to the

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solar wind shortly after it's released from the corona.

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The images are showing an important boundary region known as the

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heliospheric current sheet. That's where the Sun's

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magnetic field direction switches from northwards to

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southwards. And for the first time in high

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resolution, it was able to capture the collision of

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multiple coronal mass ejection events.

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Coronal mass ejections are large explosions of

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charged particles, plasma and magnetic field, which are

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blown away from the sun by solar flares. And they're

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a key driver of space weather events.

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In these new images, scientists are seeing coronal mass

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ejections actually piling up on top of one another.

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It's allowing scientists to figure out how they merge

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together and that could be important for Space weather studies.

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See, when coronal mass ejections collide, their

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trajectory can change, and that makes it harder to predict

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where they'll end up, whether they'll hit the Earth or whether

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they'll miss us. Their merger can also

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accelerate charged particles and mixed magnetic

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fields. And that makes their effects potentially far more

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dangerous to astronauts and satellites in as well as

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technology on the ground. The solar wind

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was first theorized by heliophysicist uh, Eugene Parker

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back in 1958. His theories about the

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solar wind, which were met with criticism at the time, have

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revolutionized science's understanding of the solar system.

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Prior to Parker Solar Probe's launch, back in 2018,

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NASA and its international partners led missions like

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Mariner 2, Helios, Ulysses Wind, and

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ACE, which all helped scientists understand the origins of the

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solar wind. But from a distance, Parker

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Solar Probe, named in honor of the late scientist, is filling

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the gaps in our understanding. Much closer to the

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sun, uh, usually at Earth distance, the

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solar wind is mostly a consistent breeze.

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But Parker Solar Probe has discovered that it's really

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anything but that at the Sun. When the

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Spacecraft reached within 24 million kilometers of the sun,

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it encountered zigzagging magnetic fields, a feature

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which scientists have now named switchbacks. Using

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Parker Solar Probe's data, scientists discovered that these

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switchbacks, which came in clumps, were far more

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common than expected. When Parker first crossed into

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the solar corona, about 13 million kilometers from the Sun's

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surface back in 2021, it noticed the boundary of the

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corona was uneven and more complex than previously

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thought. And as it got even closer, Parker

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helped scientists pinpoint the origins of the switchbacks.

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It appears they come from patches on the Sun's visible surface,

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the photosphere where magnetic funnels form.

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Last year, astronomers announced that what's known as the fast

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solar wind, one of two main classes of solar wind, is

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in part powered by these switchbacks. Adding to

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a 50 year old mystery. However, it would take

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a closer view to better understand the slow solar wind,

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which travels at just 360km per second,

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about half the speed of the fast solar wind.

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Parker Solar Probe project scientist Noor Rafi from

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the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland,

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says the big unknown has always been how the solar wind

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is generated. And how does that manage to escape the

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Sun's immense gravitational pull.

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Understanding this continuous flow of particles, especially the

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slow solar wind, is a, uh, major challenge for scientists,

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especially given the diversity of properties in these streams.

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The slow solar wind, which is twice as dense and

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more variable than the fast solar wind, Is important

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Because its interplay with the fast solar wind can create

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Moderately strong solar storm conditions At Earth,

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Sometimes even rivaling those of coronal mass ejections.

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Prior to Parker, Distant observations Suggested There are

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actually two varieties of slow solar wind,

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Distinguished by the orientation or variability of

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their magnetic fields. One type of slow

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solar wind, Called alfenic, Has small scale

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switchbacks. The other, called non alvinic, doesn't

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show these variations. As it spiraled

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towards the sun, Parker was able to confirm that there were

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indeed these two different types of slow solar wind.

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Its close up views Are also helping scientists differentiate the

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origins of the two types, which scientists believe are

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unique. The nonalvanic wind May come, um,

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of features Known as helmet streamers, Large loops

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Connecting active regions of the sun where some particles can heat

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up sufficiently to escape. On the other hand,

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Alphenic winds May well be originating near coronal

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holes, Dark, cool regions of the solar

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corona. In its current orbit around the sun,

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which brings the spacecraft just 6.1 million kilometers

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from the Sun's surface, Parker will continue to gather

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Additional data During its upcoming passes through the

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corona in order to help scientists Better confirm the slow

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solar wind's origins. By the way, the next pass

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will be on September 15 this year.

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This report from NASA TV

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liftoff of the mighty Delta IV Heavy rocket

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with.

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NASA TV: NASA's Parker Solar Probe. Ever since

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NASA's Parker Solar Probe launched into space in

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2018, it has been circling

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closer and closer to the sun and taking images

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along the way. In December

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2024, it made its record breaking

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closest approach to the sun. That's when

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it took historic close ups of the solar

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atmosphere, Images that are changing the way

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we understand our star. With images

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like these ones, we are actually going to

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have this full understanding of how the solar

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atmosphere works, and in particular, to

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try to predict the solar activity and

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mitigate its impacts.

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Stuart Gary: The images were taken by the spacecraft's wide field

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imager Of a solar probe, or wispr,

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which observes space in visible light.

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WISPR doesn't look at the sun directly.

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Instead, it captures solar material Just as it

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comes off of the sun. When it took these images,

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the spacecraft was only 3.8 million miles from

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the sun's surface. If Earth and the sun were

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one foot apart, Parker solar probe Was about

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half an inch from the sun. At that

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distance, the spacecraft was immersed in the solar

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atmosphere, Known as the corona.

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Here, streams of electrically charged

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particles Flow outward From the sun at over a

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million miles per hour, Forming the solar

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wind that fills the entire solar system.

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These images reveal previously unseen

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details at the origin of the solar wind.

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The amount of clarity and the amount of details that we got from

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Parker Solar Probe is totally unprecedented. But also we

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see phenomena that you didn't really see before. And that's

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where the fun begins. The most impactful events,

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multiple events that are one following the others.

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And understanding that interaction between

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CMEs will help us also have

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another view of their potency for

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spacewalk.

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Stuart Gary: When the most impactful eruptions reach Earth, they can

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trigger auroras. But they can also harm

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satellites, disrupt power grids and expose

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astronauts to dangerous radiation. Another

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key feature marks an important structure known

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as the heliospheric current sheet. The

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current sheet looks like a twirling skirt that extends

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out from the sun and across the solar system.

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This invisible current sheet is a boundary

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separating where the solar wind's magnetic

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field changes direction from north to south.

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It surrounds the whole sun and

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it never disappears. That's actually one of the

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regimes of the solar wind that we have to understand.

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Stuart Gary: The current sheet is important to study because it can

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affect how impactful eruptions can be at Earth.

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We've never seen these phenomena in such detail before.

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And scientists are continuing to study these images

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to piece together how the sun affects Earth and the

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rest of the solar system. Parker Solar Probe

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is opening our eyes on a new reality about our

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star, the Sun. It is rewriting the

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textbooks for us.

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Stuart Gary: This space time.

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Stuart Gary: And time now to take a look at some of the other stories making news in Science this week

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with a science report. A new study

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warns that hail storms could hit Australian cities harder than

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ever before due to climate change. Uh, findings

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by meteorologists at the University of New South Wales

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suggest that hailstorms will become more frequent, more

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damaging. And with hailstones increasing in size

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in Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne and Perth, uh,

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for example, past simulations have produced large

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10cm hailstones once every 20 years around

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Melbourne. But a warmer future will increase that to

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once every three years. But the good news is

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modeling shows there'll be little change for people living in

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Adelaide. From smashed windscreens in Sydney to

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ruined crops across Queensland, hail is one of

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nature's most dramatic and often costly displays.

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In fact, hailstorms are responsible for more than 20% of

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insurance losses across Australia. The damage

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is largely driven by the size of hailstones. And the

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stones can get big. Australia's record

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near Mackay in Queensland is around 16

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cm, more than double the diameter of a cricket or

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baseball. Hailstorms rely on warmth

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to start, so they usually occur during spring and summer

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when warm air is pushed up into cooler air higher in the

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atmosphere. Hailstones size is controlled by

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how strong the updraft is in a thunderstorm.

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Inside these storms, these strong updraft

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winds carry moisture high up into the atmosphere where it

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freezes, forming ice particles. These ice

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particles, initially known as hail embryos, pick up

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surrounding supercooled water as they circulate through the

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storm cloud. And the stronger the updraft, the

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longer a hailstone can stay in the storm and continue

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to grow. Of course, eventually a hailstone

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gets too heavy to stay up there and so it falls down to

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the ground. A new study has found

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that tubeworms and rare mollusks, which live in the deepest parts of

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the ocean, are far more widespread than previously

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thought. The new findings, reported in the journal

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Nature, used a manned submarine to explore the

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deepest, darkest sea floor trenches in the northwestern

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Pacific Ocean. Scientists descended down

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into the blackness of the Haddel trenches at a depth ranging

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from 5,800 to

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9,533 meters. The

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findings are shedding new light on the potential for life to

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exist in these extreme dark zone environments.

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You see, the communities which occupy these depths have

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no access to light and therefore they can't use

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photosynthesis to make energy. Instead they

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uh, use hydrogen sulfide and methane for chemical

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reactions in a process called chemosynthesis.

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The hydrogen sulfide and methane coming from deep

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sea vents and black smokers found along mid

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ocean ridges. A new

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study has shown that most research into computer vision technology

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which interprets imagery, is actually focused on

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facial ID and detecting people. The

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warnings showing that Big Brother really is watching you are

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being reported in the journal Nature. The authors found

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that targeting people within this research field has become

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normalized and that papers often used obscure

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language to hide the surveillance potential of their research

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by referring to people as objects. The study

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analysed papers from 1990 to 2020

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along with patents which cited these papers.

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They found that the top two nations producing papers that

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resulted in surveillance enabling patents were from the United

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States and China.

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The Australian government's social media censorship

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scheme is expanding to now include YouTube Music.

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Prime Minister Anthony Albanese claims the program is

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designed to protect children under 16 from bullying and

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access to inappropriate sexual content

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policing this scheme will require every Australian to

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obtain a digital proof of age id.

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However, critics see it as the government's backdoor

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entry to enforce a Big Brother digital ID scheme on

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citizens who have already rejected the idea of an Australia

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card identification proposal. They point to

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examples like China's Social Credit scheme which

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punishes its citizens who refuse to follow the government's

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directives. Then there's the Canadian government's decision

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to lock bank accounts of protesting truck drivers

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and Australian police using the digital Covid

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vaccination passport to track people's movements.

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And it's not just social media and YouTube Music. The

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government's new legislation will also force you to establish and

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provide your digital id. In order to use search engines

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like Google, you'll need to provide detailed information

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about yourself, including biometric data such as

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facial recognition, which will be stored on tech company

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servers like those of TikTok in Beijing. We all

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know how well governments and companies secure your personal details from

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hackers. Technology editor Alex Zahara

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00:23:12.040 --> 00:23:14.800
Reutt from TechAdvice dot Life warns that it's a

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slippery slope with government bureaucratic overreach a,

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guaranteed certainty.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Well, the government and the Prime Minister of Australia

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has effectively announced that its decision

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to uh, exempt YouTube Music from the under 16

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social media ban is now being rescinded and they want

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to include it in the ban after all, uh, from the end of

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this year. And that of course raises all kinds of questions as

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to how this is going to be enforced. I mean all of the age

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verification schemes are more or less not really

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feasible. How is an AI system going to tell

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a, uh, 15 year old from one who's 16? And

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of course what's to stop parents from simply logging

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into their children's devices, whether through the app

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or through YouTube Music, in the browser with their

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username and password and kids, uh, will have

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unfettered access. And that is before we talk about

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VPNs and browsers that are known for privacy

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with VPNs built in or accessing Tor.

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Stuart Gary: The sale of plastic face masks and things like that, uh,

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are likely to.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Rise if they're going to use AI facial

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detection. But now for parents simply logs in to their

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child's device with their username and password.

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Stuart Gary: Their parents password anyway.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: That's right.

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Stuart Gary: Shouldn't parents be controlling what their kids watch,

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not the government?

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Well, of course, I mean that's what it comes down to. You know, the parent is

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the parent, not the government.

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Stuart Gary: Give me a child at the age of five and I'll give you the man.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: That's exactly right. And really this all comes down to the

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government wanting to implement a digital ID

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system to effectively track every user

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in Australia.

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Stuart Gary: Well, it does more than that. Lets the government spy on what people are

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00:24:41.490 --> 00:24:44.490
doing. And controlling information is what governments have always been about.

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Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Absolutely, yeah. I mean the only way to counter misinformation

508
00:24:47.430 --> 00:24:50.350
is with good information, with more information and to let

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the people make up their own mind. Otherwise you effectively

510
00:24:53.110 --> 00:24:55.950
have what is just a dystopian situation

511
00:24:55.950 --> 00:24:58.950
where the government claims to be the sole source of truth. And, you know,

512
00:24:58.950 --> 00:25:01.830
it's like Pravda. I mean, you read the approved, uh, information

513
00:25:01.910 --> 00:25:04.910
or, you know, off to the gulag as you go. You know, the New

514
00:25:04.910 --> 00:25:07.870
Zealand government prime minister at the time, Jacinda Ardern, was saying

515
00:25:07.870 --> 00:25:10.790
that, you know, we are the sole single source of truth. Well, no,

516
00:25:10.790 --> 00:25:13.790
I mean that we're no longer a democracy. If that's the case, we're

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00:25:13.790 --> 00:25:16.360
a dictatorship. Ronald Reagan has famously, uh,

518
00:25:16.380 --> 00:25:19.260
stated a few decades ago that liberty is not passed

519
00:25:19.260 --> 00:25:22.060
down through the bloodline, but must be fought for and preserved by every

520
00:25:22.060 --> 00:25:25.060
generation. And that is the case. The very high reality that this

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is effectively a backdoor into a digital ID

522
00:25:27.900 --> 00:25:30.819
for all citizens. I mean, everything you're doing is

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00:25:30.819 --> 00:25:33.340
going to be spied upon. And already the government,

524
00:25:33.500 --> 00:25:34.500
uh, social credit.

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Stuart Gary: Points, just like they do in China. You're wonderful.

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00:25:36.460 --> 00:25:39.340
Alex Zaharov-Reutt: That's right. If you are not adhering to whatever the, uh, government

527
00:25:39.340 --> 00:25:42.180
policies are, and you know, you'll have your vaccine, passports,

528
00:25:42.180 --> 00:25:45.140
you'll have all sorts of things that are inside this digital id, we're going to a

529
00:25:45.140 --> 00:25:48.080
technological dystopia. And that is something that every

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00:25:48.080 --> 00:25:50.800
science fiction movie of note has been warning about

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00:25:50.800 --> 00:25:51.760
for, uh, decades.

532
00:25:51.760 --> 00:25:54.080
Stuart Gary: That's Alex Zaharov-Reutt from Tech Advice dot Life.

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00:26:09.600 --> 00:26:12.530
And that's the show for now. SpaceTime

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