Cosmic Radio Mysteries, Moon's Water Origins, and IO's Volcanic Heart: S28E08

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This is Space Time Series 28,
Episode 8, for broadcast on the

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17th of January 2025. Coming up
on Space Time, finally the

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discovery of the origins of fast
radio bursts, the link between

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Lunar Water and Earth's early
history, and NASA's Juno mission

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uncovers the heart of the Jovian
Moon IO's volcanic rage. All

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that and more coming up on Space
Time.

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Welcome to Space Time.

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With Stuart Gary.

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Astronomers have finally
narrowed down the source of

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those mysterious fast radio
bursts, or at least one of them.

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Discovering that it really did
originate around a rapidly

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spinning highly magnetic neutron
star known as a magnetar. Fast

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radio bursts are sudden
high-energy flashes at very

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specific wavelengths lasting
just a nanosecond or two and

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originating at cosmic distances.

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But in that short space of time,
they can release more energy

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than a half billion suns. The
very first fast radio burst was

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discovered back in 2007 in data
from the Parkes Radio Telescope

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in New South Wales. At first,
most were singular events,

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occurring just once at a
specific location and then never

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again.

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And that suggested they were
probably being caused by some

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sort of cataclysmic event, such
as a supernova. But astronomers

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are now detecting more and more
fast radio bursts that have

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repeated from the same location.
That suggests a very different

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cause.

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Feeding black holes, glitching
neutron stars and highly

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magnetized neutron stars called
magnetars have all been

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suspected. And it could be, in
fact, that all fast radio bursts

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are repeaters, just that some
are a lot more active than

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others. Now a report in the
journal Nature has pinned down

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the origins of at least one fast
radio burst using a novel

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technique that could be used to
find the origins of more.

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The study's authors focused on
FRB 2022-1022A, a previously

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discovered fast radio burst that
was detected in a galaxy about

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200 million light-years away.
They were able to zero in

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further more precisely to
determine the exact location of

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the radio signal by analysing
its scintillation, similar to

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how stars twinkle in the night
sky.

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The authors studied changes in
the fast radio burst's

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brightness and determined that
the burst must have originated

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in the immediate vicinity of its
source rather than much further

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out, as some models predicted.

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The team estimates that FRB
2022-1022A erupted in a region

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that's extremely close to a
rotating neutron star. 10,000

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kilometres away at most. Now,
that's less than the distance

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between New York and Singapore.
And at such close range, it

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means the burst probably emerged
from the neutron star's

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magnetosphere, a highly magnetic
region immediately surrounding

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the ultra-compact object.

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The study's lead author Ken
Zinimo says that in such

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environments of neutron stars,
the magnetic fields are really

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at the limits of what the
universe can produce. In fact,

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there's been a lot of debate
about whether such a bright

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radio emission could even escape
from such an extreme plasma

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environment.

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You see, atoms can't really
exist around these highly

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magnetic neutron stars. They'd
simply be torn apart by the

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magnetic fields. But it seems
that the energy stored in these

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magnetic fields, close to the
source, is twisting and

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reconfiguring in such a way that
it can be released as radio

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waves visible halfway across the
universe.

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Detections of fast radio bursts
have ramped up a lot in recent

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years, mostly due to the
Canadian Hydrogen Intensity

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Mapping Experimental CHIME. This
is a radio telescope array

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comprising four large stationary
receivers, each shaped like a

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half-pipe and tuned to detect
radio emissions within a range

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that's highly sensitive to fast
radio bursts.

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Since 2020, CHIME's detected
thousands of fast radio bursts

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from all over the sky. While
scientists generally agree that

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the bursts arise from extremely
compact objects, the exact

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physics driving them remains
unclear.

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Some models predict that they
should come from the turbulent

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magnetosphere immediately
surrounding the compact object,

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while others predict that the
bursts should originate much

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further out, as part of a
shockwave propagating out from

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the central object.

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So, to distinguish between the
two hypotheses, and determine

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exactly where fast radio bursts
arise, the authors considered

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the idea of scintillation. The
effect that occurs when light

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from a small bright source such
as a star filters through some

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sort of a medium such as a
galaxy's gas. We see the same

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thing happening here on Earth.

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As starlight features through
the gas of the atmosphere, it

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bends it in ways that make the
star appear to twinkle. And the

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smaller or further away the
object is, the more it twinkles.

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That's why light from larger,
closer objects such as planets

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experience less bending and
therefore don't appear to

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twinkle.

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The authors reasoned that if
they could estimate the degree

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to which a fast radio burst
scintillates, they could

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determine the relative size of
the region from where it

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originated. The smaller the
region, the closer the burst

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must be to its source, and the
more likely it is to have come

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from a magnetically turbulent
environment.

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On the other hand, the larger
the region, the further away the

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burst would be, giving more
support to the idea that fast

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radio bursts stem from far-out
shock waves. To test their

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hypothesis, the researchers
looked at FRB 2022-1022A. That's

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a fast radio burst first
detected by CHIME in 2022. The

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signal lasted about 2
milliseconds and was a

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relatively run-of-the-mill fast
radio burst in terms of its

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brightness.

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However, scientists at McGill
University found that FRB

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2022-1022A exhibited one
outstanding property. The light

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from the burst was highly
polarized, with the angle of

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polarization tracing a smooth
S-shaped curve.

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Now this pattern is interpreted
as evidence that the fast radio

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burst emission site is rotating,
a characteristic previously

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observed in pulsars, highly
magnetized rotating neutron

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stars. So, if FRB 2022-1022A
originated from close to a

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neutron star, the authors should
be able to prove this using

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scintillation. Nemo and
colleagues analyzed data from

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CHIME, observing steep
variations in brightness which

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signals scintillation.

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In other words, the fast radio
burst was twinkling. That means

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the authors had confirmed that
there was gas somewhere between

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the telescope and the fast radio
burst that was bending and

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filtering the radio waves.

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They then determined where this
gas was located, confirming that

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the gas within the fast radio
burst's host galaxy was

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responsible for some of the
scintillation. The gas acted as

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a sort of natural lens. Allowing
the researchers to zoom in on

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the fast radio burst site and
determine that the burst

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originated from an extremely
small region, estimated to be

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just around 10,000 kilometres
wide.

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Nemo says that means the FRB is
probably within hundreds of

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thousands of kilometres from the
source, and on cosmic scales,

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that's extremely close. Now for
comparison, one would expect the

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signal would be far more than
tens of millions of kilometres

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away were it to originate from a
shockwave.

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And under those conditions you
wouldn't see any scintillation.

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In other words, the results
clearly rule out the possibility

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that FRB 2022-1022A emerged from
the outskirts of a compact

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object. Instead, the study
proves for the first time that

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this fast radio burst originated
from very close to a neutron

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star.

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This is space-time. Still to
come, the link between Lunar

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Water and Earth's early history,
and NASA's Juno mission uncovers

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the heart of the Jovey Moon IO's
volcanic rage. All that and more

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still to come on Space Time.

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A new study has shown that much
of the Moon's water actually

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originated on the early
proto-Earth. The findings were

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reported in the Journal Of The
Proceedings Of The National

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Academy Of Sciences, analysed
water in nine samples from the

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Apollo-Era lunar missions using
a high-precision triple-oxygen

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isotope technique.

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The method separates water into
its various binding phases,

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loosely bound, tightly bound and
trapped within minerals. It does

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this through stepwise heating at
50°C, 150°C and at 1000°C.

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One of the study's authors,
Maxwell Thymans from the Vigier

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University in Brussels, says the
data provides crucial evidence

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that Lunar Water had a dual
heritage, one part originating

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from early Earth-like material
and another derived through

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cometary impacts. He says it's a
major step forward in

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unravelling where Lunar Water
comes from.

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The findings suggest that the
Moon inherited water tracing

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back to Earth's formation,
followed by later contributions

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from comet impacts delivering
the water reservoirs we see

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today. The Earth-Moon system was
created when a Mars-Sized

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planet, which we now call Theia,
slammed into the early

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proto-Earth some 4.5 billion
years ago, causing both bodies

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to melt into a magma ocean.

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Now eventually this all cooled
and coalesced to form the Earth

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as we have it today. And some of
the debris ejecta flung into

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orbit around the Earth from the
newly created planet eventually

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it created to form the Moon
sometime later. The study shows

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that the oxygen isotopic
composition closely matches

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enstatite chondrites, a
meteorite type believed to be

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one of the building blocks of
the Earth.

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But there are also clear signs
of cometary contribution, with a

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significant portion of Lunar
Water showing isotopic

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similarities to comets.
Interestingly, the findings also

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challenge the idea that the
majority of Lunar Water was

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produced through solar
interactions with lunar

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silicates, instead presenting a
far more complex mixing of

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sources.

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This is Space Time. Still to
come, NASA's Juno mission

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uncovers the heart of the Jovian
Moon IO's volcanic rage, and

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later in the science report, a
study looks at the sorts of

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illnesses Disney princesses
would have suffered were they

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real people. You can tell we're
in the silly season. All that

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and more still to come on Space
Time.

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Scientists with NASA's Juno
mission to Jupiter have

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discovered that the volcanoes on
Jupiter's Moon IO are each

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likely to be powered by their
own chamber of rolling hot magma

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rather than a single subsurface
magma ocean. The new findings

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reported in the journal Nature
solves a 44-year-old mystery

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about the subsurface origins of
the Moon's most demonstrative

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geological features.

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About the same size as the Earth
's Moon, IO is known as the most

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volcanically active body in our
solar system. It's home to an

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estimated 400 volcanoes,
blasting lava and plumes in

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seemingly continuous eruptions.
In fact, if you could live on

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IO, you wouldn't have weather
reports, you'd have geological

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reports, with mountain building
in the north and lava lakes

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forming in the east.

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IO was discovered by Galileo
Galilei in 1610. But it wasn't

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until the Voyager 1 flyby in
1979 that imaging scientist

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00:11:28,741 --> 00:11:31,584
Linda Morabito from NASA's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory in

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Pasadena, California first
identified a volcanic plume

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erupting from the surface of IO
in an image taken by the

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spacecraft.

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GENED principal investigator
Scott Bolton from the Southwest

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Research Institute in San
Antonio, Texas says since

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Morabito's discovery, planetary
scientists have been wondering

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about how the volcanoes are
being fed from lava underneath

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the surface. Were there shallow
oceans of white-hot magma

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fueling the volcanoes, or were
their sources far more

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localised?

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Scientists knew that data from
Juno's two very close flybys of

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IO could give fresh insights on
how this tortured little Moon

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actually worked. The Juno
spacecraft made extremely close

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flybys of IO in December 2023
and February 2024, getting to

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within 1,500 kilometres of its
pizza-faced surface.

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During these close approaches,
Juno communicated with NASA's

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Deep Space Communications
Network, acquiring

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high-precision dual-frequency
Doppler data, which was then

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used to measure IO's gravity by
tracking how it affected the

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spacecraft's acceleration.

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What the mission learned about
the Moon's gravity from these

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flybys revealed lots of details
about a phenomenon known as

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gravitational tidal flexing.
See, IO's extremely close to the

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mammoth Jupiter, the largest
planet in our solar system. And

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its elliptical orbit swings it
around the gas giant once every

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42 and a half hours.

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As this distance varies, so too
does Jupiter's gravitational

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pull on the Moon, which causes
the Moon to be relentlessly

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pulled and squeezed. The result
is an extreme case of

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00:13:03,172 --> 00:13:06,553
gravitational tidal flexing,
friction from tidal forces

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00:13:06,734 --> 00:13:10,415
generating internal heat. Bolton
says this constant flexing

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creates immense energy, which
literally melts portions of IO's

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00:13:14,157 --> 00:13:14,777
interior.

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00:13:15,549 --> 00:13:18,530
Now, if IO had a global magma
ocean, Bolton knew that the

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00:13:18,630 --> 00:13:21,631
signal of its tidal deformation
would be much larger than a more

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00:13:21,711 --> 00:13:23,551
rigid, mostly solid interior.

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So, depending on the results of
Juno's probing of IO's gravity

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00:13:27,933 --> 00:13:30,853
field, Bolton and colleagues
were able to tell if a global

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00:13:30,933 --> 00:13:34,975
magma ocean was indeed hiding
beneath its surface. The Juno

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00:13:35,075 --> 00:13:37,995
team compared Doppler data from
their two flybys with

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00:13:38,035 --> 00:13:41,056
observations from the agency's
previous missions to the Jovian

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system and from ground-based
telescopes.

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00:13:44,137 --> 00:13:47,220
And they found that the tidal
deformation was consistent with

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00:13:47,400 --> 00:13:51,904
IO not having a shallow global
magma ocean. Juno's discovery

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00:13:51,984 --> 00:13:55,707
that tidal forces don't always
create global magma oceans has

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00:13:55,767 --> 00:13:58,409
implications for science's
understanding of other moons

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00:13:58,489 --> 00:14:02,212
too, including Enceladus and
Europa, and even exoplanets and

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00:14:02,292 --> 00:14:06,055
super-Earths. One of the teams
involved with the Juno mission

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00:14:06,316 --> 00:14:07,837
are with the University Of
Leicester.

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00:14:08,037 --> 00:14:11,200
The objectives of the Juno
mission are threefold.

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There is... A study of the
internal structure of the

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00:14:15,303 --> 00:14:19,366
planet, how the mass is
distributed on the inside,

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00:14:19,406 --> 00:14:23,509
whether there is a solid core or
not. Secondly, there is an

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00:14:23,529 --> 00:14:27,072
objective to look deep within
the atmosphere of the planet,

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00:14:27,512 --> 00:14:31,075
above the visible cloud tops
that you can see from Earth, to

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00:14:31,395 --> 00:14:34,378
understand the structure of the
weather layers beneath the cloud

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00:14:34,438 --> 00:14:38,063
tops. The origin of the Great
Red Spot and so forth.

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00:14:38,844 --> 00:14:42,526
And thirdly, there is the
objective of looking at the

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00:14:42,586 --> 00:14:46,207
origins of the planet's auroras,
which are the most intense

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00:14:46,288 --> 00:14:49,689
auroras in the solar system. The
Earth, of course, has auroras

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00:14:49,709 --> 00:14:53,351
around the pole, so does Saturn
and so does Jupiter, but Jupiter

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00:14:53,351 --> 00:14:56,813
is by far the most powerful. And
we want to know the origin, the

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00:14:56,813 --> 00:15:00,214
physical origin, that drives the
auroras. And the connection with

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00:15:00,214 --> 00:15:02,276
the magnetic field at large
distances.

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00:15:02,416 --> 00:15:04,997
The University Of Leicester's
involvement in the mission is

266
00:15:05,537 --> 00:15:10,320
through Professor Stan Cowley,
who is a science co-investigator

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00:15:10,840 --> 00:15:12,901
on the main Juno science team.

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00:15:13,161 --> 00:15:18,064
And that was because we had been
involved in theoretical studies

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00:15:18,104 --> 00:15:22,667
of Jupiter's environment in the
immediate couple of years

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00:15:22,727 --> 00:15:27,129
beforehand and had produced a
research paper that was

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00:15:27,209 --> 00:15:28,870
published in 2001.

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00:15:29,326 --> 00:15:35,008
Which has become the definitive
model of how Jupiter's auroras,

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00:15:35,248 --> 00:15:39,329
or how we think Jupiter's
auroras are actually generated.

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00:15:39,929 --> 00:15:44,270
And so when this mission was
being proposed to NASA, we were

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00:15:44,270 --> 00:15:49,852
the go-to people to be involved
in the planning of the mission.

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00:15:50,672 --> 00:15:54,033
If we want to understand the
solar system and how it formed,

277
00:15:54,493 --> 00:15:57,454
how it evolved over time, then
we need to understand Jupiter.

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00:15:57,654 --> 00:16:01,235
We understand quite a lot about
Jupiter, but we don't know the

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00:16:01,275 --> 00:16:05,937
details of the interior, whether
or not it has a core, how much

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00:16:06,177 --> 00:16:08,318
water is contained in the
atmosphere.

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00:16:08,739 --> 00:16:12,900
So the details are really,
really important. And due to

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00:16:13,240 --> 00:16:18,082
Juno's unique polar orbit, we
really have an opportunity for a

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00:16:18,122 --> 00:16:21,644
step change in our knowledge. It
is a game changer. The results

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00:16:21,664 --> 00:16:24,765
that will come from the Juno
mission will significantly

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00:16:24,825 --> 00:16:28,142
enhance our knowledge of
Jupiter. Overall.

286
00:16:28,142 --> 00:16:30,623
And in that report from the
University Of Leicester, we

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00:16:30,663 --> 00:16:34,745
heard from Professors Emma
Brunst and Stan Cowley. This is

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00:16:34,785 --> 00:16:35,605
Space Time.

289
00:16:52,212 --> 00:16:54,513
And time now to take another
brief look at some of the other

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00:16:54,553 --> 00:16:57,487
stories making use in science
this week. With a science

291
00:16:57,547 --> 00:16:57,987
report.

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00:16:58,808 --> 00:17:01,811
There now seems to be more
carbon stored in human-made

293
00:17:01,851 --> 00:17:04,853
stuff on the planet than what
there is carbon in the natural

294
00:17:04,933 --> 00:17:08,456
world. The findings reported in
the journal Cell Report

295
00:17:08,496 --> 00:17:11,499
Sustainability looked at how
much carbon is stored in

296
00:17:11,539 --> 00:17:14,622
long-lasting products such as
plastics and buildings. The

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00:17:14,642 --> 00:17:16,604
authors looked at the amount of
fossil carbon in the

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00:17:16,664 --> 00:17:20,007
technosphere, that's the sum of
all human-made artifacts both in

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00:17:20,127 --> 00:17:21,108
use and discarded.

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00:17:21,748 --> 00:17:25,551
They estimate that some 8.4
billion tonnes of fossil carbon

301
00:17:25,671 --> 00:17:30,294
has been accumulated in the past
25 years, with approximately 0.4

302
00:17:30,334 --> 00:17:33,736
billion tonnes being added
annually. The authors say this

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00:17:33,776 --> 00:17:37,237
has a huge potential to add to
greenhouse gas emissions if the

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00:17:37,257 --> 00:17:39,879
carbon locked up in these
everyday objects were ever to be

305
00:17:39,979 --> 00:17:40,579
released.

306
00:17:42,260 --> 00:17:45,362
Researchers have shown that the
expected lifespan of a dementia

307
00:17:45,462 --> 00:17:48,404
patient after they've been
diagnosed varies dramatically

308
00:17:48,464 --> 00:17:51,525
depending on how old they are,
their gender and what type of

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00:17:51,525 --> 00:17:54,908
disease they have. A report in
the British Medical Journal

310
00:17:55,068 --> 00:17:58,311
combined results from 261
studies, predominantly from

311
00:17:58,372 --> 00:18:00,974
Europe and North America,
looking at the lifespan of

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00:18:01,014 --> 00:18:01,995
dementia patients.

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00:18:02,556 --> 00:18:05,579
The authors say life expectancy
varies greatly depending on the

314
00:18:05,619 --> 00:18:09,523
situation, with women diagnosed
around 60 likely to live another

315
00:18:09,623 --> 00:18:13,708
8.9 years, while men diagnosed
in the mid-80s have an average

316
00:18:13,748 --> 00:18:15,850
life expectancy of just 2.2
years.

317
00:18:16,502 --> 00:18:19,623
Overall, researchers say
dementia reduced life expectancy

318
00:18:19,703 --> 00:18:23,464
by about two years for people
with a diagnosis at age 85,

319
00:18:23,724 --> 00:18:27,085
three to four years with a
diagnosis at age 80, and up to

320
00:18:27,165 --> 00:18:32,587
13 years with a diagnosis at age
65. 13% of people were admitted

321
00:18:32,587 --> 00:18:35,267
to a nursing home in the first
year after their diagnosis,

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00:18:35,407 --> 00:18:39,969
increasing to a third at three
years and 57% at five years.

323
00:18:41,469 --> 00:18:43,810
Well, here's a study that proves
we're now in what journalists

324
00:18:43,830 --> 00:18:47,616
call the silly season. The study
has shown how, had they been

325
00:18:47,696 --> 00:18:50,799
real, each of the Disney fairy
tale princesses could have

326
00:18:50,859 --> 00:18:54,102
exposed themselves to all sorts
of harmful substances and

327
00:18:54,162 --> 00:18:56,645
illnesses, at least according to
their storylines.

328
00:18:57,285 --> 00:18:59,768
The findings reported in the
British Medical Journal show

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00:18:59,828 --> 00:19:02,610
that Snow White, for example,
would have been at risk of heart

330
00:19:02,650 --> 00:19:05,733
disease and mental health issues
for her time locked away in a

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00:19:05,753 --> 00:19:08,576
castle, and the long-term
lasting effects of eating a

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00:19:08,596 --> 00:19:10,738
poisoned apple should also be
considered.

333
00:19:11,402 --> 00:19:14,744
Jasmine and Belle's proximity to
large animals could put them at

334
00:19:14,804 --> 00:19:16,886
risk of all sorts of
animal-borne diseases.

335
00:19:17,206 --> 00:19:20,148
Cinderella's exposure to dust
and magical glitter could cause

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00:19:20,208 --> 00:19:23,290
lung diseases. Pocahontas's
penchant for diving off a

337
00:19:23,970 --> 00:19:26,392
250-metre-tall cliff would
undoubtedly have led to broken

338
00:19:26,452 --> 00:19:26,872
bones.

339
00:19:27,172 --> 00:19:30,850
Aurora's infinite sleep carries
the risk of heart disease. Mulan

340
00:19:30,850 --> 00:19:33,797
's familial pressures would have
led to mental health issues, and

341
00:19:33,857 --> 00:19:36,939
anyone climbing up Rapunzel's
hair would have likely caused

342
00:19:36,939 --> 00:19:38,000
her permanent hair loss and
scalp damage.

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00:19:40,612 --> 00:19:43,133
And finally for this week, we're
looking at the mystery of the

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00:19:43,153 --> 00:19:46,514
Alaska Triangle. It's a place
where travellers keep

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00:19:46,574 --> 00:19:49,095
disappearing, and it just
happens to have the highest

346
00:19:49,136 --> 00:19:52,697
recorded numbers of paranormal
incidents in the world. But Tim

347
00:19:52,757 --> 00:19:55,438
Mendham from Australian Skeptics
wants to know, why are

348
00:19:55,438 --> 00:19:59,260
proponents of such zones so
geometrically challenged? Why

349
00:19:59,460 --> 00:20:01,080
are they always in triangles?

350
00:20:01,160 --> 00:20:03,941
The Alaska Triangle is where
supposedly a lot of people have

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00:20:04,002 --> 00:20:06,422
disappeared. Someone's
suggesting that anywhere between

352
00:20:06,563 --> 00:20:10,388
500 and 2,000 mysterious
disappearances a year. Just

353
00:20:10,408 --> 00:20:14,391
quite the national US average.
There's a lot of wild country in

354
00:20:14,411 --> 00:20:17,072
Alaska, and a lot of bears as
well. There's somewhere between

355
00:20:17,132 --> 00:20:20,354
500 and 3,000, so no one's
really quite sure. And they say

356
00:20:20,534 --> 00:20:22,916
it's a consistent flow of UFO
sightings.

357
00:20:22,936 --> 00:20:25,817
Someone's one with the other,
people mysteriously

358
00:20:25,877 --> 00:20:28,699
disappearing. A lot of UFO
sightings, they're being taken

359
00:20:28,739 --> 00:20:32,781
away. And in this triangle,
which is formed by joining up

360
00:20:33,042 --> 00:20:36,083
various known sites within
Alaska, the people keep

361
00:20:36,123 --> 00:20:37,985
disappearing, fair enough.
Someone says, you know, some of

362
00:20:37,985 --> 00:20:39,786
these things that have
disappeared, they actually find

363
00:20:39,806 --> 00:20:41,968
the bodies later on. And it's
sort of, yep, a bear.

364
00:20:42,249 --> 00:20:44,211
You can't say that's always
going to be the case. People

365
00:20:44,271 --> 00:20:48,554
might just freeze to death. It's
a wild place. So my problem is

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00:20:48,554 --> 00:20:51,357
that with all these things, like
the Bermuda Triangle, the Japan

367
00:20:51,437 --> 00:20:53,679
Sea Triangle, the Alaska
Triangle, everyone has

368
00:20:53,739 --> 00:20:56,762
triangles. I think that's a bit
boring. It's a geometrically

369
00:20:56,862 --> 00:21:00,105
challenged, I call it. No one
has a horrifying hexagram or a

370
00:21:00,125 --> 00:21:00,946
dangerous project.

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00:21:00,946 --> 00:21:02,127
Yeah, Alaska Parallelogram.

372
00:21:03,488 --> 00:21:06,589
Pointed out very rudely, a
mathematician with obviously a

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00:21:06,609 --> 00:21:09,390
typical wacky sense of humor
that mathematicians have, that a

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00:21:09,410 --> 00:21:11,751
dodecahedron is a
three-dimensional space whereas

375
00:21:11,771 --> 00:21:14,572
a triangle is two-dimensional. I
think it will, you know, UFOs up

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00:21:14,552 --> 00:21:16,113
in the sky, UFOs down in the
water.

377
00:21:16,113 --> 00:21:18,354
You've really got to have a
three-dimensional shape these

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00:21:18,374 --> 00:21:21,455
days to account for all these
things. And triangles just

379
00:21:21,535 --> 00:21:23,976
doesn't do it. And often the
case like the Bermuda Triangle,

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00:21:23,976 --> 00:21:26,697
a lot of the examples that are
used, they never happened in the

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00:21:26,757 --> 00:21:29,178
area they say they did. I think
Bermuda Triangle, there were

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00:21:29,178 --> 00:21:31,379
some cases raised that actually
happened in the Pacific.

383
00:21:31,499 --> 00:21:33,060
Well, the Gulf Of Mexico anyway,
yeah.

384
00:22:07,024 --> 00:22:10,567
And that's the show for now.
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385
00:22:10,647 --> 00:22:14,130
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Time with Stuart Gary.

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