Titan’s Missing Deltas, Mars’ Volcanic Past, and Kelt 9b’s Metal Discovery

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Kind: captions
Language: en

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This is Spacetime series 28 episode 52


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for broadcast on the 30th of April


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2025. Coming up on Spaceime, the strange


00:00:09.920 --> 00:00:13.030
mystery of Titan's river deltas. A new


00:00:13.040 --> 00:00:15.430
study unveils the volcanic history and


00:00:15.440 --> 00:00:18.470
clues to ancient life on Mars and rare


00:00:18.480 --> 00:00:20.230
earth metals discovered in the


00:00:20.240 --> 00:00:23.029
atmosphere of a glowing hot exoplanet.


00:00:23.039 --> 00:00:27.349
All that and more coming up on Spaceime.


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Welcome to Space Time with Stuart


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[Music]




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Garry. Scientists are looking for the


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Saturn moon Titans missing river deltas.


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For researchers who want to learn about


00:00:53.199 --> 00:00:55.430
the geological past of a planet, river


00:00:55.440 --> 00:00:58.389
deltas are a great place to start. See,


00:00:58.399 --> 00:01:00.630
deltas gather sediments from large areas


00:01:00.640 --> 00:01:03.349
into one small place. There they can be


00:01:03.359 --> 00:01:05.509
studied and reveal climate, tectonic


00:01:05.519 --> 00:01:08.149
histories, or even signs of past life.


00:01:08.159 --> 00:01:09.910
And that's why NASA sent its most recent


00:01:09.920 --> 00:01:12.149
Mars rover, Perseverance, to Jezro


00:01:12.159 --> 00:01:14.070
Crater, home of a prominent and well


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preserved river delta. And it's also why


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planetary scientists are so interested


00:01:18.400 --> 00:01:20.510
in finding deltas on Saturn's moon


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Titan. Titan is a unique place in our


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solar system. It's the only planetary


00:01:26.080 --> 00:01:27.670
body in our solar system other than


00:01:27.680 --> 00:01:30.149
Earth that has liquid rains that form


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rivers and streams across its surface


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and eventually flow down into lakes and


00:01:34.759 --> 00:01:38.069
seas. But unlike the Earth, on Titan,


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the liquid isn't water, but methane and


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ethane. See, Titan's so cold, water is


00:01:43.759 --> 00:01:46.030
frozen solid, forming much of the


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bedrock. Still, because river deltas are


00:01:48.640 --> 00:01:50.310
a great place to study an area's


00:01:50.320 --> 00:01:51.990
history, planetary scientists have been


00:01:52.000 --> 00:01:53.910
interested in finding river deltas on


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Saturn's moon, Titan. Like on Earth,


00:01:56.560 --> 00:01:58.789
river deltas on Titan are likely to be a


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treasure trove of scientific data. But


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there's one problem. It seems Titan is


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largely devoid of river deltas despite


00:02:06.240 --> 00:02:08.389
its large rivers of liquid methane and


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ethane. So, a new study reported in the


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journal of geoysical research planets


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has been trying to understand Titan's


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strange geography why it's so different


00:02:17.360 --> 00:02:20.070
to other worlds like the Earth and Mars.


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The study's lead author Sam Burch from


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Brown University says while


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disappointing, this absence of river


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deltas on Titan does raise a host of


00:02:28.080 --> 00:02:30.630
interesting questions. See, Boot says


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scientists have always taken it for


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granted. If you have rivers and


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sediments, you're bound to get river


00:02:35.280 --> 00:02:38.150
deltas. But it seems Titan is very


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weird, making it a great playground for


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studying processes scientists thought


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they understood that clearly don't.


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Titan is the largest of Saturn's 274


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known moons. Its thick nitrogen and


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methane atmosphere gives rise to a host


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of Earthlike climate and weather


00:02:54.440 --> 00:02:56.869
features. Scientists first learned of


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Titan's clouds, wind, rain, rivers,


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lakes, and seas during the Cassini


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spacecraft flyby in 2006.


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Earing through Titan's thick atmosphere


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with synthetic aperture radar, Yini


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revealed spattering channels and large


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flat areas consistent with large bodies


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of liquid. But largely missing from the


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Cassini images were deltas even at the


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mouths of large rivers. But it wasn't


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clear, however, whether these deltas


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were truly absent or whether they just


00:03:23.840 --> 00:03:26.309
didn't show up in the Cassini data. See,


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the problem with Cassini's data is that


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shallow liquid methane is largely


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transparent in any images. So, while the


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images could see the broad seas and


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river channels, it's harder to


00:03:37.120 --> 00:03:39.030
confidently make out coastal features.


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That's because it's difficult to see


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where the coast ends and where the


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seafloor


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begins. For the study, Bur developed a


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numerical model that simulates what


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Cassini would see if it looked at a


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landscape which scientists already


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understood well, planet Earth. In the


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model, the water in Earth's rivers and


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oceans was replaced by Titan's methane


00:03:57.599 --> 00:03:59.350
liquid, which has different radar


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absorption principles compared to water.


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Burch says he basically made synthetic


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images of the Earth that assume


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properties of Titan's liquid instead of


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Earth's. Once they see the transformed


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images of a landscape they know, they


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can then go back to Titan and better


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understand what they're looking at. But


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the researchers found that the synthetic


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images of Earth clearly resolved large


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deltas and many other large coastal


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landscapes. So if there are deltas on


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Titan size of the one say at the mouth


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of the Mississippi River, scientists


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should be able to see them. And if there


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are large barrier islands similar


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coastal landscapes like those seen along


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the American Gulf Coast, they should be


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able to see those too. But when Burching


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colleagues combed over the Titan images


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in light of the new analysis, they came


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up mostly empty. Aside from two probable


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deltas near Titan South Pole, the rest


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of the moon's rivers were entirely


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deltar-free. The authors found that only


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about 1.3% of Titan's large rivers that


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terminated at coastlines have deltas. In


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contrast, on Earth, nearly every river


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of similar size has a delta of some


00:05:00.440 --> 00:05:02.710
description. It's still not entirely


00:05:02.720 --> 00:05:05.749
clear why Titan lacks river deltas. The


00:05:05.759 --> 00:05:07.430
fluid properties of Titan's rivers


00:05:07.440 --> 00:05:09.029
should make them perfectly capable of


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carrying and depositing sediment. Now,


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it could be that sea levels on Titan


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rise and fall so rapidly that deltas


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across the landscape more quickly than


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what they can build up at a single


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point. Winds and tidal currents along


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Titan's coast may also play an equally


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large role in preventing delta


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formation. And missing deltas aren't the


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only mystery raised by the new research.


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A new analysis of Titan's coastlines


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reveal pits of unknown origin deep


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within lakes and seas. The study also


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found deep channels on the floors of the


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seas that seem to have been carved out


00:05:42.320 --> 00:05:44.469
by river flows, but it's not clear how


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they got there. Now, all of these


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surprises are going to require a lot


00:05:48.479 --> 00:05:50.390
more research in order to fully


00:05:50.400 --> 00:05:54.150
understand them. This is spaceime. Still


00:05:54.160 --> 00:05:56.230
to come, a new study unveils the


00:05:56.240 --> 00:05:58.550
volcanic history of the red planet Mars


00:05:58.560 --> 00:06:00.629
and rare earth metals discovered in the


00:06:00.639 --> 00:06:03.029
atmosphere of a glowing hot exoplanet.


00:06:03.039 --> 00:06:07.950
All that and more still to come on


00:06:07.960 --> 00:06:10.390
Spacetime. This episode of Spacetime is


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[Music]


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A new study has revealed that the floor


00:07:33.840 --> 00:07:35.909
of the red planet's Jezro crater is


00:07:35.919 --> 00:07:38.070
composed of a diverse array of ironrich


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volcanic rocks. The new research


00:07:40.560 --> 00:07:42.550
reported in the journal Science Advances


00:07:42.560 --> 00:07:44.309
is providing fresh insights into the


00:07:44.319 --> 00:07:46.550
crater's geological history. The


00:07:46.560 --> 00:07:48.950
observations by NASA's Mars Perseverance


00:07:48.960 --> 00:07:50.870
Rover are providing scientists with


00:07:50.880 --> 00:07:53.110
their best chance yet to uncover signs


00:07:53.120 --> 00:07:55.830
of ancient life. The study's lead author


00:07:55.840 --> 00:07:58.550
Michael Ty from Texas A&M University


00:07:58.560 --> 00:08:00.309
says that by analyzing these diverse


00:08:00.319 --> 00:08:02.469
volcanic rocks, scientists have gained


00:08:02.479 --> 00:08:04.550
valuable insights into the processes


00:08:04.560 --> 00:08:07.670
which shape this region of Mars. Ty says


00:08:07.680 --> 00:08:09.430
it enhances science's understanding of


00:08:09.440 --> 00:08:11.430
the planet's geological history as well


00:08:11.440 --> 00:08:13.909
as its potential to have supported life.


00:08:13.919 --> 00:08:16.469
Perseverance landed in Jezro Crater back


00:08:16.479 --> 00:08:19.430
on February the 18th, 2021 as part of


00:08:19.440 --> 00:08:21.749
the Mars 2020 mission search for signs


00:08:21.759 --> 00:08:23.749
of ancient microbial life on the red


00:08:23.759 --> 00:08:25.749
planet. The rover has been collecting


00:08:25.759 --> 00:08:27.430
core samples of Martian rock and


00:08:27.440 --> 00:08:29.430
regalith for a future sample return


00:08:29.440 --> 00:08:32.070
mission and analysis back on Earth.


00:08:32.080 --> 00:08:33.829
Meanwhile, scientists like Tyus are


00:08:33.839 --> 00:08:35.750
using the rover's high-tech tools to


00:08:35.760 --> 00:08:37.990
analyze Martian rocks in situ to


00:08:38.000 --> 00:08:39.750
determine the chemical composition and


00:08:39.760 --> 00:08:42.070
detect compounds that could be signs of


00:08:42.080 --> 00:08:44.630
past life. The six wheel cars size


00:08:44.640 --> 00:08:46.230
mobile laboratory also has a


00:08:46.240 --> 00:08:47.990
highresolution camera system that


00:08:48.000 --> 00:08:50.230
provides detailed images of rock texture


00:08:50.240 --> 00:08:52.550
and structure. But Tai says the


00:08:52.560 --> 00:08:54.310
technology is so advanced compared to


00:08:54.320 --> 00:08:56.230
that of past mass rovers that they're


00:08:56.240 --> 00:08:58.150
now gathering new information, detailed


00:08:58.160 --> 00:09:00.070
chemical analysis, mineral compositions,


00:09:00.080 --> 00:09:02.070
and even microscopic textures at


00:09:02.080 --> 00:09:04.790
unprecedented rates. Tyson colleagues


00:09:04.800 --> 00:09:06.470
analyzed rock formations within the


00:09:06.480 --> 00:09:08.470
crater to better understand Mars's


00:09:08.480 --> 00:09:10.870
volcanic and hydraological history. The


00:09:10.880 --> 00:09:12.630
authors used an advanced spectrometer


00:09:12.640 --> 00:09:14.550
called Pixel to analyze the chemical


00:09:14.560 --> 00:09:16.230
composition and textures of rocks at the


00:09:16.240 --> 00:09:18.710
mass formation, a key geological area


00:09:18.720 --> 00:09:21.350
within Jezro crater. And the author's


00:09:21.360 --> 00:09:23.670
analysis revealed two distinct types of


00:09:23.680 --> 00:09:26.310
volcanic rocks. The first type, dark


00:09:26.320 --> 00:09:28.470
toned and rich in iron and magnesium,


00:09:28.480 --> 00:09:30.470
contains integrown minerals such as


00:09:30.480 --> 00:09:33.269
pyroine and pliolays filspar with


00:09:33.279 --> 00:09:35.910
evidence of altered olivine. The second


00:09:35.920 --> 00:09:38.110
type, a lighter tone rock classified as


00:09:38.120 --> 00:09:40.310
tracheanderite, includes pageiolays


00:09:40.320 --> 00:09:42.590
crystals with a potassiumrich ground


00:09:42.600 --> 00:09:45.509
mass. These findings indicate a complex


00:09:45.519 --> 00:09:47.829
volcanic history, one involving multiple


00:09:47.839 --> 00:09:50.790
lava flows with varying compositions. To


00:09:50.800 --> 00:09:52.550
determine how these rocks were formed,


00:09:52.560 --> 00:09:54.710
the authors conducted thermodynamic


00:09:54.720 --> 00:09:56.790
modeling, a method that simulates the


00:09:56.800 --> 00:09:58.430
conditions under which the minerals were


00:09:58.440 --> 00:10:00.710
solidified. Their results suggested the


00:10:00.720 --> 00:10:02.470
unique compositions resulted from


00:10:02.480 --> 00:10:05.030
highderee fractional crystallization. a


00:10:05.040 --> 00:10:06.310
process where different minerals


00:10:06.320 --> 00:10:08.030
separate out of moles and rock as it


00:10:08.040 --> 00:10:10.470
cools. They also found signs that the


00:10:10.480 --> 00:10:12.389
lava may have mixed with ironrich


00:10:12.399 --> 00:10:14.550
material from the Martian crust, further


00:10:14.560 --> 00:10:16.949
changing the rock's composition. Tai


00:10:16.959 --> 00:10:19.190
says the processes seen here, fractional


00:10:19.200 --> 00:10:21.430
crystallization and crustal assimilation


00:10:21.440 --> 00:10:23.350
also happen in active volcanic systems


00:10:23.360 --> 00:10:25.910
on Earth. It suggests that this part of


00:10:25.920 --> 00:10:27.910
Mars may have had prolonged volcanic


00:10:27.920 --> 00:10:29.670
activity which in turn could have


00:10:29.680 --> 00:10:31.350
provided a sustained source for


00:10:31.360 --> 00:10:34.230
different compounds used by life. The


00:10:34.240 --> 00:10:35.910
discovery is crucial to understanding


00:10:35.920 --> 00:10:38.470
the red planet's potential habitability.


00:10:38.480 --> 00:10:40.230
See, if Mars had an active volcanic


00:10:40.240 --> 00:10:42.069
system for an extended period of time,


00:10:42.079 --> 00:10:43.750
it might also have maintained conditions


00:10:43.760 --> 00:10:45.430
suitable for life for long periods of


00:10:45.440 --> 00:10:47.829
Martian history. The authors carefully


00:10:47.839 --> 00:10:49.829
selected their sample rocks because they


00:10:49.839 --> 00:10:52.430
contain clues to the red planet's past


00:10:52.440 --> 00:10:54.630
environments. But the real data will


00:10:54.640 --> 00:10:56.630
come with a future Mars sample return


00:10:56.640 --> 00:10:58.870
mission. A collaborative effort between


00:10:58.880 --> 00:11:00.550
NASA and the European Space Agency


00:11:00.560 --> 00:11:02.310
aiming to bring back samples within the


00:11:02.320 --> 00:11:03.990
next decade is now in the planning


00:11:04.000 --> 00:11:06.790
stage. Once on Earth, scientists will be


00:11:06.800 --> 00:11:08.550
able to access these materials using


00:11:08.560 --> 00:11:10.389
more advanced laboratory techniques,


00:11:10.399 --> 00:11:12.829
allowing their analysis in far greater


00:11:12.839 --> 00:11:16.630
detail. This is spaceime. Still to come,


00:11:16.640 --> 00:11:18.310
rare earth minerals discovered in the


00:11:18.320 --> 00:11:20.710
atmosphere of a glowing hot exoplanet.


00:11:20.720 --> 00:11:22.870
And later in the science report, a new


00:11:22.880 --> 00:11:25.630
study shows that AI chatbots make


00:11:25.640 --> 00:11:28.389
inconsistent moral judgments. All that


00:11:28.399 --> 00:11:46.630
and more coming up on Spaceime.


00:11:46.640 --> 00:11:48.389
Astronomers have discovered rare earth


00:11:48.399 --> 00:11:50.949
metals in the atmosphere of Kelt 9b, one


00:11:50.959 --> 00:11:53.670
of the hottest known exoplanets. Back in


00:11:53.680 --> 00:11:56.069
the summer of 2018, a joint team of


00:11:56.079 --> 00:11:57.829
astronomers from the University of Burn


00:11:57.839 --> 00:12:00.470
and Geneva found signatures of gases


00:12:00.480 --> 00:12:03.230
iron and titanium in Kelt 9b's


00:12:03.240 --> 00:12:05.509
atmosphere. Now, these researchers have


00:12:05.519 --> 00:12:07.190
also been able to detect traces of


00:12:07.200 --> 00:12:09.590
vaporized sodium, magnesium, chromium,


00:12:09.600 --> 00:12:11.550
and the rare earth metals scandium and


00:12:11.560 --> 00:12:14.629
utrium. Exoplanets are planets outside


00:12:14.639 --> 00:12:16.949
our solar system that orbit around stars


00:12:16.959 --> 00:12:19.430
other than the sun. Since the discovery


00:12:19.440 --> 00:12:21.190
of the first exoplanets in the mid


00:12:21.200 --> 00:12:24.870
1990s, over 5,000 have now been found.


00:12:24.880 --> 00:12:27.110
And many are extreme compared to planets


00:12:27.120 --> 00:12:29.430
in our solar system, such as hot gas


00:12:29.440 --> 00:12:31.350
giants that orbit incredibly close to


00:12:31.360 --> 00:12:33.829
their host stars, sometimes with periods


00:12:33.839 --> 00:12:36.230
of less than a few days. Now, these


00:12:36.240 --> 00:12:38.150
so-called hot Jupiters don't exist in


00:12:38.160 --> 00:12:40.150
our solar system, and their presence has


00:12:40.160 --> 00:12:42.230
defied predictions of how and why


00:12:42.240 --> 00:12:44.870
planets form. For more than 20 years


00:12:44.880 --> 00:12:46.790
now, astronomers from all over the world


00:12:46.800 --> 00:12:48.389
have been working to understand where


00:12:48.399 --> 00:12:50.629
these planets come from, what they're


00:12:50.639 --> 00:12:52.790
made of, and what their climates must be


00:12:52.800 --> 00:12:55.910
like. The planet's host star, Kelt 9, is


00:12:55.920 --> 00:12:58.389
located 650 lighty years from Earth in


00:12:58.399 --> 00:13:01.110
the constellation Signis the Swan. Its


00:13:01.120 --> 00:13:04.230
exoplanet, Kelt 9b, exemplifies the most


00:13:04.240 --> 00:13:06.710
extreme of these hot Jupiters. That's


00:13:06.720 --> 00:13:08.150
because it's orbiting very closely


00:13:08.160 --> 00:13:09.990
around a star that's almost twice as hot


00:13:10.000 --> 00:13:11.590
as the sun. And therefore, the


00:13:11.600 --> 00:13:13.430
atmosphere of this hot Jupiter reaches


00:13:13.440 --> 00:13:17.430
an incredible 4,000° C. Now, in such


00:13:17.440 --> 00:13:19.590
heat, all elements are almost completely


00:13:19.600 --> 00:13:21.670
vaporized, and molecules are broken


00:13:21.680 --> 00:13:23.990
apart into the constituent atoms, very


00:13:24.000 --> 00:13:26.790
similar to the outer layers of stars.


00:13:26.800 --> 00:13:28.710
Now, this means that Kilt 9b's


00:13:28.720 --> 00:13:30.710
atmosphere contains no clouds or


00:13:30.720 --> 00:13:33.110
aerosols, and the sky is clear and


00:13:33.120 --> 00:13:35.030
mostly transparent to light from its


00:13:35.040 --> 00:13:37.590
host star. The atoms that make up the


00:13:37.600 --> 00:13:39.829
gas of the planet's atmosphere absorb


00:13:39.839 --> 00:13:41.750
light at very specific wavelengths in


00:13:41.760 --> 00:13:44.150
the spectrum. And each atom has a unique


00:13:44.160 --> 00:13:46.710
fingerprint of colors that it absorbs.


00:13:46.720 --> 00:13:48.470
These fingerprints can be measured with


00:13:48.480 --> 00:13:50.550
a sensitive spectrograph mounted on a


00:13:50.560 --> 00:13:52.790
large telescope, allowing astronomers to


00:13:52.800 --> 00:13:54.310
determine the chemical composition of


00:13:54.320 --> 00:13:56.150
atmospheres of planets many light years


00:13:56.160 --> 00:13:58.389
away. Now, for this study, the authors


00:13:58.399 --> 00:14:00.629
used the HAPS north spectrograph mounted


00:14:00.639 --> 00:14:02.550
on the Italian national telescope on the


00:14:02.560 --> 00:14:05.350
island of La Palmer. They found iron and


00:14:05.360 --> 00:14:07.590
titanium atoms in the hot atmosphere of


00:14:07.600 --> 00:14:10.150
Colt 9b. One of the study's authors,


00:14:10.160 --> 00:14:12.150
Kevin Hang from the University of Burn


00:14:12.160 --> 00:14:14.069
says he then went to re-examine the coat


00:14:14.079 --> 00:14:16.470
9b system in order to both confirm their


00:14:16.480 --> 00:14:18.389
previous detections, but also to search


00:14:18.399 --> 00:14:21.030
for additional elements. A new survey


00:14:21.040 --> 00:14:22.629
reported in the journal Astronomy and


00:14:22.639 --> 00:14:25.110
Astrophysics involved 73 atoms,


00:14:25.120 --> 00:14:26.910
including some so-called rare earth


00:14:26.920 --> 00:14:29.430
metals. These substances are less common


00:14:29.440 --> 00:14:31.509
on Earth, but are used in many advanced


00:14:31.519 --> 00:14:33.829
materials and devices. The authors


00:14:33.839 --> 00:14:35.189
predicted that the spectrum of this


00:14:35.199 --> 00:14:36.949
planet could well be a treasure trove


00:14:36.959 --> 00:14:38.710
where a multitude of metals might be


00:14:38.720 --> 00:14:40.389
detected but have not been observed in


00:14:40.399 --> 00:14:42.509
the atmospheres of any other planets


00:14:42.519 --> 00:14:45.269
before. After careful analysis, the


00:14:45.279 --> 00:14:47.430
authors indeed found strong signals of


00:14:47.440 --> 00:14:50.069
vaporized sodium, magnesium, raium, and


00:14:50.079 --> 00:14:51.990
the rare earth metals scandium and


00:14:52.000 --> 00:14:54.150
utitrium. The latter three of these have


00:14:54.160 --> 00:14:55.910
never been detected robustly in the


00:14:55.920 --> 00:14:58.790
atmosphere of an exoplanet before. The


00:14:58.800 --> 00:15:00.150
authors were also able to use these


00:15:00.160 --> 00:15:02.389
signals to estimate at what altitude in


00:15:02.399 --> 00:15:04.269
the planet's atmosphere these atoms were


00:15:04.279 --> 00:15:06.949
absorbing and to learn more about strong


00:15:06.959 --> 00:15:08.710
global wind patterns high up in the


00:15:08.720 --> 00:15:10.550
planet's atmosphere. Wind patterns that


00:15:10.560 --> 00:15:12.470
are blowing material from one hemisphere


00:15:12.480 --> 00:15:15.189
to the other. This report from Kevin


00:15:15.199 --> 00:15:17.430
Hang and Yan Shriarkers from the


00:15:17.440 --> 00:15:19.990
University of Burn. I'm Kevin Hang. I'm


00:15:20.000 --> 00:15:22.150
a theoretical astrophysicist who is


00:15:22.160 --> 00:15:24.710
interested in exoplanets, planets around


00:15:24.720 --> 00:15:28.389
other stars beyond our solar system. I'm


00:15:28.399 --> 00:15:30.310
currently a professor of astrophysics at


00:15:30.320 --> 00:15:31.910
the University of Bayon in Switzerland


00:15:31.920 --> 00:15:34.069
and the director of his center for space


00:15:34.079 --> 00:15:35.069
and


00:15:35.079 --> 00:15:37.990
habitability. My name is Yanu Marakers.


00:15:38.000 --> 00:15:39.829
I am from the Netherlands but I've


00:15:39.839 --> 00:15:41.949
worked at the center for space and


00:15:41.959 --> 00:15:45.189
habitability in University of Bayon and


00:15:45.199 --> 00:15:48.230
the observatory of Geneva. My interest


00:15:48.240 --> 00:15:50.949
is the study of the atmospheres of


00:15:50.959 --> 00:15:52.710
exoplanets


00:15:52.720 --> 00:15:55.509
uh using very large telescopes that are


00:15:55.519 --> 00:15:58.150
spread out all over the world. Kelt 9b


00:15:58.160 --> 00:16:02.389
is a very hot gas giant planet. You can


00:16:02.399 --> 00:16:05.110
imagine it as a planet that is somewhat


00:16:05.120 --> 00:16:07.110
similar as Jupiter in our own solar


00:16:07.120 --> 00:16:09.990
system but it is located very close to


00:16:10.000 --> 00:16:13.430
its host star. And that itself is not


00:16:13.440 --> 00:16:15.670
necessarily special because we know of


00:16:15.680 --> 00:16:18.389
many planets that are like this. We call


00:16:18.399 --> 00:16:20.550
them hot Jupiters. But this planet is


00:16:20.560 --> 00:16:22.870
orbiting a particularly hot star as


00:16:22.880 --> 00:16:24.550
well. And that means that it is the


00:16:24.560 --> 00:16:27.110
hottest exoplanet that we know exists


00:16:27.120 --> 00:16:29.670
today. So what we have discovered in the


00:16:29.680 --> 00:16:32.310
atmosphere of kelp 9b is that it


00:16:32.320 --> 00:16:36.230
contains in gaseous form uh heavy metals


00:16:36.240 --> 00:16:39.829
such as iron, titanium, chromium and


00:16:39.839 --> 00:16:41.670
other heavy metals that have never been


00:16:41.680 --> 00:16:43.670
observed in the atmosphere of a planet


00:16:43.680 --> 00:16:46.710
before. In the atmosphere of kelp 9b, we


00:16:46.720 --> 00:16:49.189
have detected a number of heavy metals


00:16:49.199 --> 00:16:51.749
and two of these are what we call rare


00:16:51.759 --> 00:16:54.790
earth metals, scandium and itrium. And


00:16:54.800 --> 00:16:56.389
these have not been observed in the


00:16:56.399 --> 00:16:58.710
atmosphere of any planet before. To


00:16:58.720 --> 00:17:00.790
study what the atmosphere of a planet is


00:17:00.800 --> 00:17:03.189
made of, astronomers make use of a


00:17:03.199 --> 00:17:04.510
technique called


00:17:04.520 --> 00:17:07.590
spectroscopy. So the light from the


00:17:07.600 --> 00:17:10.630
exoplanet system will reach our


00:17:10.640 --> 00:17:13.110
telescope. And the telescope instead of


00:17:13.120 --> 00:17:16.470
making a picture, it will feed the light


00:17:16.480 --> 00:17:18.309
into the instrument called a


00:17:18.319 --> 00:17:21.029
specttograph. And the specttoraph acts


00:17:21.039 --> 00:17:24.309
to disperse the light into its


00:17:24.319 --> 00:17:27.350
individual colors like a rainbow. Now


00:17:27.360 --> 00:17:30.070
this rainbow will tell us how bright the


00:17:30.080 --> 00:17:32.950
object is at each of its individual


00:17:32.960 --> 00:17:35.830
colors. But the material that is present


00:17:35.840 --> 00:17:39.710
in the planet will absorb colors at very


00:17:39.720 --> 00:17:44.909
specific places. And uh for many uh for


00:17:44.919 --> 00:17:48.390
many atoms or species that can be a very


00:17:48.400 --> 00:17:50.150
complicated pattern of colors that is


00:17:50.160 --> 00:17:52.470
absorbed. So you can think of that as


00:17:52.480 --> 00:17:54.950
some sort of a fingerprint. Every atom


00:17:54.960 --> 00:17:57.350
has its unique pattern of colors or its


00:17:57.360 --> 00:17:59.909
unique fingerprint that it absorbs. So


00:17:59.919 --> 00:18:01.590
by passing the light through a


00:18:01.600 --> 00:18:04.150
specttoraph and seeing at which colors


00:18:04.160 --> 00:18:06.310
the light has absorbed, we will be able


00:18:06.320 --> 00:18:09.350
to distinguish which elements are


00:18:09.360 --> 00:18:11.830
present in the object. even if it's many


00:18:11.840 --> 00:18:13.750
light years away. So, one of the reasons


00:18:13.760 --> 00:18:16.310
why we are so uh interested almost


00:18:16.320 --> 00:18:17.990
obsessed with this technique is because


00:18:18.000 --> 00:18:21.029
it's very general. It makes us think of


00:18:21.039 --> 00:18:23.430
molecules and atoms as fingerprints of


00:18:23.440 --> 00:18:25.669
an exoplanet. So once you accept that


00:18:25.679 --> 00:18:27.669
idea, you can use this idea to search


00:18:27.679 --> 00:18:29.350
for anything you want. In the case of


00:18:29.360 --> 00:18:32.150
K9B, we searched for metals, but you


00:18:32.160 --> 00:18:33.590
could imagine in the future that we


00:18:33.600 --> 00:18:35.830
could use it to search for bio


00:18:35.840 --> 00:18:39.270
signatures, so signs of life in another


00:18:39.280 --> 00:18:41.750
exoplanet. That's Kevin Hang in


00:18:41.760 --> 00:18:44.870
Shremarkers from the University of Burn


00:18:44.880 --> 00:18:46.730
and this is


00:18:46.740 --> 00:19:01.390
[Music]


00:19:01.400 --> 00:19:03.750
spacetime. And time now to take another


00:19:03.760 --> 00:19:05.029
brief look at some of the other stories


00:19:05.039 --> 00:19:06.870
making news in science this week with a


00:19:06.880 --> 00:19:09.669
science report. A new study suggests


00:19:09.679 --> 00:19:11.190
that you can now blame when you were


00:19:11.200 --> 00:19:13.830
conceived for how you store fat. A


00:19:13.840 --> 00:19:15.669
report in the journal Nature Metabolism


00:19:15.679 --> 00:19:17.270
has found that people who are conceived


00:19:17.280 --> 00:19:19.669
during colder seasons may grow up to


00:19:19.679 --> 00:19:21.430
store fat differently in their body,


00:19:21.440 --> 00:19:23.110
putting them at an advantage when it


00:19:23.120 --> 00:19:25.110
comes to weight loss. The authors


00:19:25.120 --> 00:19:26.950
investigated the density of different


00:19:26.960 --> 00:19:29.909
types of fat in 683 people and then


00:19:29.919 --> 00:19:31.750
compared them based on whether they were


00:19:31.760 --> 00:19:33.590
conceived in the warmer or cooler half


00:19:33.600 --> 00:19:35.750
of the year. They found that those


00:19:35.760 --> 00:19:37.510
conceived in cooler months generally


00:19:37.520 --> 00:19:39.270
showed higher levels of brown fat


00:19:39.280 --> 00:19:41.350
activity which is used to regulate body


00:19:41.360 --> 00:19:43.270
temperature and which has been linked to


00:19:43.280 --> 00:19:45.190
more energy expenditure, more heat


00:19:45.200 --> 00:19:47.430
production, less fat accumulation around


00:19:47.440 --> 00:19:50.669
body organs and lower body mass


00:19:50.679 --> 00:19:53.190
index. Paleontologists have for the


00:19:53.200 --> 00:19:55.669
first time analyzed the soft body tissue


00:19:55.679 --> 00:19:58.230
of a fossilized 183 million year old


00:19:58.240 --> 00:20:00.870
plesiosaur. The results reported in the


00:20:00.880 --> 00:20:02.710
journal current biology showed that the


00:20:02.720 --> 00:20:05.029
long neck marine reptile had both smooth


00:20:05.039 --> 00:20:07.830
and scaly skin. This was likely so that


00:20:07.840 --> 00:20:09.750
it could swim rapidly and move along


00:20:09.760 --> 00:20:12.549
rough seabeds. Plesiosaurs lived in the


00:20:12.559 --> 00:20:15.110
wards oceans for much of the misoic era


00:20:15.120 --> 00:20:18.310
between 203 and 66 million years ago.


00:20:18.320 --> 00:20:20.390
These reptiles could grow up to 12 m


00:20:20.400 --> 00:20:22.950
long. They fed on fish and they moved


00:20:22.960 --> 00:20:24.710
much like sea turtles using four


00:20:24.720 --> 00:20:27.590
paddlike flippers. Until now, little had


00:20:27.600 --> 00:20:29.870
been known about the external anatomy of


00:20:29.880 --> 00:20:32.310
plesiosaurs. Fossilized soft tissue such


00:20:32.320 --> 00:20:34.149
as skin and internal organs is


00:20:34.159 --> 00:20:36.870
exceptionally rare. The specimen was


00:20:36.880 --> 00:20:39.029
found near Holtz Martin in Germany and


00:20:39.039 --> 00:20:41.110
provides unparalleled insights into the


00:20:41.120 --> 00:20:43.190
appearance and biology of these long


00:20:43.200 --> 00:20:44.990
extinct


00:20:45.000 --> 00:20:47.350
reptiles. A new study has found that


00:20:47.360 --> 00:20:49.590
chatbots make inconsistent moral


00:20:49.600 --> 00:20:51.909
judgments. A report in the journal of


00:20:51.919 --> 00:20:54.149
the Royal Society Open Science presented


00:20:54.159 --> 00:20:55.750
large language models with a moral


00:20:55.760 --> 00:20:57.270
dilemma a self-driving car might


00:20:57.280 --> 00:20:59.190
encounter and then prompted them to


00:20:59.200 --> 00:21:01.430
choose the better of two options. For


00:21:01.440 --> 00:21:03.270
example, either hitting and killing the


00:21:03.280 --> 00:21:05.510
pedestrian or swerving into a barrier


00:21:05.520 --> 00:21:07.750
and killing the car's occupants.


00:21:07.760 --> 00:21:09.750
However, the scientists found that small


00:21:09.760 --> 00:21:11.750
changes to the prompts like labeling


00:21:11.760 --> 00:21:13.510
options with letters instead of numbers


00:21:13.520 --> 00:21:15.750
is all that it takes for a chatbot to


00:21:15.760 --> 00:21:17.909
choose differently. The authors say


00:21:17.919 --> 00:21:20.230
previous research to identify chatbots


00:21:20.240 --> 00:21:22.149
moral biases treated them as having


00:21:22.159 --> 00:21:24.870
moral values like humans. But this new


00:21:24.880 --> 00:21:26.390
study shows their behavior is


00:21:26.400 --> 00:21:28.710
fundamentally different. They suggest


00:21:28.720 --> 00:21:30.470
future research should assist the


00:21:30.480 --> 00:21:32.390
reliability of large language models


00:21:32.400 --> 00:21:35.149
before trying to understand their


00:21:35.159 --> 00:21:37.510
behavior. YouTube is celebrating its


00:21:37.520 --> 00:21:40.070
20th birthday. Two decades of everything


00:21:40.080 --> 00:21:42.230
from funny cat videos to major


00:21:42.240 --> 00:21:44.870
historical moments in time. With the


00:21:44.880 --> 00:21:46.470
details, we're joined by technology


00:21:46.480 --> 00:21:49.750
editor Alex Sahara from techadvice.life.


00:21:49.760 --> 00:21:53.029
Yes, they're celebrating 20 years in the


00:21:53.039 --> 00:21:54.789
business. They're the number two most


00:21:54.799 --> 00:21:56.870
visited website on the internet. It's


00:21:56.880 --> 00:21:58.470
the place you go. They have competition


00:21:58.480 --> 00:22:00.390
from Rumble and other places, but


00:22:00.400 --> 00:22:02.310
YouTube is well Google. I mean, Google


00:22:02.320 --> 00:22:04.789
is still despite despite all the AI,


00:22:04.799 --> 00:22:06.710
despite chat GBT, despite all the things


00:22:06.720 --> 00:22:08.549
that are happening, Google is number one


00:22:08.559 --> 00:22:10.149
and YouTube is number two. I mean,


00:22:10.159 --> 00:22:11.909
people YouTube is owned by Google


00:22:11.919 --> 00:22:13.350
anyway. Yeah, that's right. And YouTube


00:22:13.360 --> 00:22:14.789
is used like a search engine. I mean, so


00:22:14.799 --> 00:22:16.549
many people discover how to do things


00:22:16.559 --> 00:22:18.149
by, you know, it's monkey see monkey do.


00:22:18.159 --> 00:22:19.590
You see someone on the internet showing


00:22:19.600 --> 00:22:21.270
how to fix your car or fix something


00:22:21.280 --> 00:22:22.870
that you have that, you know, you need


00:22:22.880 --> 00:22:25.110
the instructions to, and people bring up


00:22:25.120 --> 00:22:26.789
YouTube and watch a video there. But,


00:22:26.799 --> 00:22:28.630
uh, over the 20 years, there's a few


00:22:28.640 --> 00:22:30.149
different interesting milestones. I


00:22:30.159 --> 00:22:32.310
mean, the first clip was 19 seconds long


00:22:32.320 --> 00:22:34.310
called Me at the Zoo, and you can still


00:22:34.320 --> 00:22:36.230
watch that today, but there are now over


00:22:36.240 --> 00:22:39.590
20 billion videos on YouTube, and that's


00:22:39.600 --> 00:22:41.990
music and shorts and podcasts. Uh, but


00:22:42.000 --> 00:22:43.909
will anything beat a cat playing a


00:22:43.919 --> 00:22:46.630
piano? Well, of course it was one of the


00:22:46.640 --> 00:22:48.310
uh famous videos as well. I mean, a lot


00:22:48.320 --> 00:22:50.470
of the memes and things that you now see


00:22:50.480 --> 00:22:52.710
on X or other places or little snippets


00:22:52.720 --> 00:22:54.710
taken out of, you know, popular videos.


00:22:54.720 --> 00:22:56.149
But there's some interesting stats.


00:22:56.159 --> 00:22:57.909
There are over 20 million videos


00:22:57.919 --> 00:23:00.149
uploaded daily to YouTube and so many


00:23:00.159 --> 00:23:02.070
people have their own YouTube shows and


00:23:02.080 --> 00:23:03.909
have become stars like Mr. Beast. Both


00:23:03.919 --> 00:23:06.230
YouTube music and YouTube Kids are 10


00:23:06.240 --> 00:23:08.310
years old each this year as well. So


00:23:08.320 --> 00:23:10.070
that's sort of halfway through YouTube's


00:23:10.080 --> 00:23:11.750
lifespan. And there's a lot of music


00:23:11.760 --> 00:23:13.909
videos that have hit the billion views


00:23:13.919 --> 00:23:15.510
club. There's more than 300 of those.


00:23:15.520 --> 00:23:17.430
Number one is Adele with Hello. Number


00:23:17.440 --> 00:23:19.430
two is Ed Sheeran with Shape of You and


00:23:19.440 --> 00:23:22.470
Lewis Fona with Despacito. But uh yeah,


00:23:22.480 --> 00:23:24.549
YouTube is 20 years old, and it'll be


00:23:24.559 --> 00:23:25.990
interesting to see how it changes in the


00:23:26.000 --> 00:23:27.510
next 20 years. The other big news, we


00:23:27.520 --> 00:23:29.190
just covered it last week, but it's


00:23:29.200 --> 00:23:30.710
happening again. Another update for


00:23:30.720 --> 00:23:32.710
Samsung. In early April, there were a


00:23:32.720 --> 00:23:35.190
number of updates for I think the S24


00:23:35.200 --> 00:23:36.950
series in different parts of the world


00:23:36.960 --> 00:23:39.669
to get 1 UI7. But in Australia, we've


00:23:39.679 --> 00:23:41.270
had to wait until the last week of April


00:23:41.280 --> 00:23:43.669
for them to arrive here. So that's 1 UI


00:23:43.679 --> 00:23:46.310
7 and Android 15. There's a lot of extra


00:23:46.320 --> 00:23:48.950
and newer AI features that have improved


00:23:48.960 --> 00:23:51.270
over what was delivered last year. But


00:23:51.280 --> 00:23:53.590
interestingly, Android 16 is going to be


00:23:53.600 --> 00:23:54.870
released about three or four months


00:23:54.880 --> 00:23:57.029
earlier. And the big Google IO is coming


00:23:57.039 --> 00:23:59.270
this month. And so this is where Google


00:23:59.280 --> 00:24:01.750
is going to unveil and showcase Android


00:24:01.760 --> 00:24:03.430
16. Normally it comes when the new


00:24:03.440 --> 00:24:05.590
Pixels arrive, but they've decided to


00:24:05.600 --> 00:24:07.510
amp up the pressure on Apple and


00:24:07.520 --> 00:24:08.950
everybody else and they want to have


00:24:08.960 --> 00:24:10.789
Android 16 ready to go. So we're going


00:24:10.799 --> 00:24:12.070
to see a whole stack of new features,


00:24:12.080 --> 00:24:15.269
but this also means that 1 UI8 is going


00:24:15.279 --> 00:24:17.269
to arrive as well. So a lot of people


00:24:17.279 --> 00:24:19.990
who are just upgrading to 1 UI 7 will in


00:24:20.000 --> 00:24:22.390
a few months time get 1 UI8. Hopefully


00:24:22.400 --> 00:24:24.149
we won't have to wait till 2026 for


00:24:24.159 --> 00:24:26.149
that. But Google has decided that it


00:24:26.159 --> 00:24:28.789
really wants to accelerate the Android


00:24:28.799 --> 00:24:30.230
time scale. So, it looks as though


00:24:30.240 --> 00:24:32.470
they're going to be beating Apple every


00:24:32.480 --> 00:24:34.630
year by launching the newest version of


00:24:34.640 --> 00:24:36.470
Android before the newest version of


00:24:36.480 --> 00:24:38.630
iOS. So, the big battle between Apple


00:24:38.640 --> 00:24:40.390
and Google continues. And at the moment,


00:24:40.400 --> 00:24:42.630
Google and Samsung are winning the AI


00:24:42.640 --> 00:24:44.630
race much more than Apple is. In fact,


00:24:44.640 --> 00:24:46.230
we're yet to see what Apple is going to


00:24:46.240 --> 00:24:47.669
do because a lot of the big AI features


00:24:47.679 --> 00:24:49.269
that were meant to come, you know, by


00:24:49.279 --> 00:24:52.470
18.4, the iOS 18.4 didn't arrive. Apple


00:24:52.480 --> 00:24:53.909
was very embarrassed about that. And yet


00:24:53.919 --> 00:24:55.590
on Samsung and Google devices, you can


00:24:55.600 --> 00:24:57.909
do a lot more with Google Gemini, you


00:24:57.919 --> 00:24:59.430
can hold the phone up and look at


00:24:59.440 --> 00:25:00.789
different things and it can explain to


00:25:00.799 --> 00:25:01.990
you what it's seeing. In fact, one of


00:25:02.000 --> 00:25:03.350
the features you'll be able to upload a


00:25:03.360 --> 00:25:06.149
video into Gemini with Android 16 and it


00:25:06.159 --> 00:25:07.909
can tell you what it sees and help you


00:25:07.919 --> 00:25:09.510
understand what it is you're watching


00:25:09.520 --> 00:25:11.269
and it's going to be great for consumers


00:25:11.279 --> 00:25:13.430
globally. That's Alexarovit from


00:25:13.440 --> 00:25:17.390
techadvice.life.


00:25:17.400 --> 00:25:22.500
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