MAVEN’s Final Hour: Mars Orbiter Crisis + Historic ISS Evacuation Update & Lunar Timekeeping

WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.240 --> 00:00:02.869
Welcome to Astronomy Daily, your source


00:00:02.879 --> 00:00:05.670
for the latest space and astronomy news.


00:00:05.680 --> 00:00:06.710
I'm Anna.


00:00:06.720 --> 00:00:09.350
>> And I'm Avery. It's Saturday, January


00:00:09.360 --> 00:00:12.870
17th, 2026, and we've got an absolutely


00:00:12.880 --> 00:00:14.789
packed episode for you today.


00:00:14.799 --> 00:00:16.950
>> We really do. And we're leading with


00:00:16.960 --> 00:00:19.750
some bittersweet news from Mars. NASA's


00:00:19.760 --> 00:00:22.150
making what might be their final attempt


00:00:22.160 --> 00:00:24.710
to contact the Maven Orbiter, which has


00:00:24.720 --> 00:00:27.429
been silent for over a month now. It's


00:00:27.439 --> 00:00:29.269
looking increasingly unlikely that


00:00:29.279 --> 00:00:30.790
they'll be able to recover the


00:00:30.800 --> 00:00:31.830
spacecraft.


00:00:31.840 --> 00:00:33.990
>> That's tough news, but we've also got


00:00:34.000 --> 00:00:35.830
some incredible human achievements to


00:00:35.840 --> 00:00:39.030
celebrate. The SpaceX Crew 11 astronauts


00:00:39.040 --> 00:00:40.709
have safely returned to Houston


00:00:40.719 --> 00:00:42.630
following the first ever medical


00:00:42.640 --> 00:00:44.709
evacuation from the International Space


00:00:44.719 --> 00:00:46.630
Station. We'll get into the details of


00:00:46.640 --> 00:00:48.950
how that historic operation unfolded.


00:00:48.960 --> 00:00:50.950
>> Europe's stepping up its launch game,


00:00:50.960 --> 00:00:53.590
too. Aron Space has announced they'll be


00:00:53.600 --> 00:00:56.549
launching the first Aron 64 rocket on


00:00:56.559 --> 00:00:59.189
February 12th. That's the more powerful


00:00:59.199 --> 00:01:01.590
four booster version. This is a big deal


00:01:01.600 --> 00:01:04.229
for European space capabilities. We're


00:01:04.239 --> 00:01:06.070
also diving into some fascinating


00:01:06.080 --> 00:01:08.070
research today. Scientists have been


00:01:08.080 --> 00:01:10.390
using CERN's particle accelerators to


00:01:10.400 --> 00:01:12.789
simulate asteroid impacts and what they


00:01:12.799 --> 00:01:15.030
discovered about ironrich space rocks


00:01:15.040 --> 00:01:17.030
could change how we approach planetary


00:01:17.040 --> 00:01:19.429
defense. Then we've got something that


00:01:19.439 --> 00:01:21.590
sounds like science fiction, but is very


00:01:21.600 --> 00:01:24.230
real. China has released the world's


00:01:24.240 --> 00:01:26.469
first practical software for keeping


00:01:26.479 --> 00:01:29.749
time on the moon. Yes, lunar timekeeping


00:01:29.759 --> 00:01:31.990
is now a thing, and it's more important


00:01:32.000 --> 00:01:34.149
than you might think. And we'll wrap up


00:01:34.159 --> 00:01:35.830
with some stunning new images from


00:01:35.840 --> 00:01:38.789
Hubble. Even after 35 years in orbit,


00:01:38.799 --> 00:01:40.870
it's still showing us where planets are


00:01:40.880 --> 00:01:43.590
born in protolanetary discs around young


00:01:43.600 --> 00:01:44.469
stars.


00:01:44.479 --> 00:01:46.710
>> Lots to cover, so let's get started.


00:01:46.720 --> 00:01:48.789
Let's start with that Mars story, Anna.


00:01:48.799 --> 00:01:50.950
NASA's Maven Orbiter has been one of our


00:01:50.960 --> 00:01:53.510
most valuable assets at Mars for over a


00:01:53.520 --> 00:01:55.270
decade. What's the latest on the


00:01:55.280 --> 00:01:56.550
recovery efforts?


00:01:56.560 --> 00:01:59.030
>> Well, it's not looking good, I'm afraid.


00:01:59.040 --> 00:02:01.670
Maven, that's the Mars Atmosphere and


00:02:01.680 --> 00:02:04.230
Volatile Evolution Orbiter, went silent


00:02:04.240 --> 00:02:07.670
on December 6th, 2025, and NASA has been


00:02:07.680 --> 00:02:10.070
unable to reestablish contact ever


00:02:10.080 --> 00:02:12.550
since. The spacecraft has been orbiting


00:02:12.560 --> 00:02:15.670
Mars since 2014, providing invaluable


00:02:15.680 --> 00:02:18.150
data about the Martian atmosphere and


00:02:18.160 --> 00:02:20.150
serving as a critical communications


00:02:20.160 --> 00:02:22.869
relay for the Curiosity and Perseverance


00:02:22.879 --> 00:02:23.750
rovers.


00:02:23.760 --> 00:02:25.990
>> So, what exactly happened? I mean,


00:02:26.000 --> 00:02:27.830
communications blackouts aren't


00:02:27.840 --> 00:02:29.750
completely unusual for Mars missions,


00:02:29.760 --> 00:02:30.229
right?


00:02:30.239 --> 00:02:32.550
>> You're right. They're not. In this case,


00:02:32.560 --> 00:02:34.790
Maven passed behind Mars, which


00:02:34.800 --> 00:02:37.270
temporarily blocks communication. That's


00:02:37.280 --> 00:02:39.430
a routine occurrence, but when it should


00:02:39.440 --> 00:02:41.910
have emerged on the other side, NASA's


00:02:41.920 --> 00:02:44.150
deep space network couldn't regain


00:02:44.160 --> 00:02:46.470
contact. What makes it worse is that


00:02:46.480 --> 00:02:48.630
this happened right before a solar


00:02:48.640 --> 00:02:49.750
conjunction.


00:02:49.760 --> 00:02:51.750
>> That's when the sun sits directly


00:02:51.760 --> 00:02:53.750
between Earth and Mars. Correct.


00:02:53.760 --> 00:02:56.309
>> Exactly. During solar conjunction, which


00:02:56.319 --> 00:02:59.110
occurs roughly every 2 years, solar


00:02:59.120 --> 00:03:01.830
particles interfere with radio signals.


00:03:01.840 --> 00:03:03.830
NASA temporarily halts all


00:03:03.840 --> 00:03:05.750
communications with Mars missions during


00:03:05.760 --> 00:03:08.070
this period to avoid sending corrupted


00:03:08.080 --> 00:03:10.550
commands or receiving incomplete data


00:03:10.560 --> 00:03:12.949
that could damage spacecraft. Though the


00:03:12.959 --> 00:03:15.350
conjunction basically meant NASA had to


00:03:15.360 --> 00:03:17.270
wait before they could even try to


00:03:17.280 --> 00:03:18.550
recover Maven.


00:03:18.560 --> 00:03:21.190
>> And that conjunction period just ended,


00:03:21.200 --> 00:03:23.270
>> right? NASA said they wouldn't have


00:03:23.280 --> 00:03:25.350
contact with any Mars missions until


00:03:25.360 --> 00:03:28.630
Friday, January 16th. So, as of today,


00:03:28.640 --> 00:03:30.470
they're making renewed attempts to


00:03:30.480 --> 00:03:32.949
contact Maven. But here's the concerning


00:03:32.959 --> 00:03:35.430
part. Louise Proctor, the director of


00:03:35.440 --> 00:03:38.149
NASA's planetary science division, said


00:03:38.159 --> 00:03:41.350
on January 13th, and I quote, "We'll


00:03:41.360 --> 00:03:43.430
start looking again, but at this point,


00:03:43.440 --> 00:03:45.589
it's looking very unlikely that we are


00:03:45.599 --> 00:03:47.110
going to be able to recover the


00:03:47.120 --> 00:03:48.229
spacecraft."


00:03:48.239 --> 00:03:50.470
>> That's pretty pessimistic language from


00:03:50.480 --> 00:03:52.630
NASA. Do we know what might have caused


00:03:52.640 --> 00:03:55.110
the initial failure? The leading theory


00:03:55.120 --> 00:03:57.030
is that Maven started rotating


00:03:57.040 --> 00:04:00.149
unexpectedly after passing behind Mars.


00:04:00.159 --> 00:04:01.990
This would have shifted the spacecraft


00:04:02.000 --> 00:04:04.710
out of its planned orbit and potentially


00:04:04.720 --> 00:04:07.350
moved its antenna away from Earth. But


00:04:07.360 --> 00:04:09.589
here's where it gets more complicated.


00:04:09.599 --> 00:04:12.229
Maven has had aging hardware issues for


00:04:12.239 --> 00:04:13.270
years now.


00:04:13.280 --> 00:04:14.550
>> What kind of issues are we talking


00:04:14.560 --> 00:04:16.789
about? The spacecraft has had problems


00:04:16.799 --> 00:04:18.870
with its onboard inertial measurement


00:04:18.880 --> 00:04:22.069
units or IMUs, which are essential for


00:04:22.079 --> 00:04:25.510
orientation in space. Back in 2022,


00:04:25.520 --> 00:04:28.230
Maven spent about 3 months in safe mode


00:04:28.240 --> 00:04:30.629
because of IMU problems. The mission


00:04:30.639 --> 00:04:33.110
team had to rely on backup systems that


00:04:33.120 --> 00:04:35.510
have experienced accelerated wear and


00:04:35.520 --> 00:04:38.150
tear. They even developed an alternative


00:04:38.160 --> 00:04:40.790
all stellar navigation mode that uses


00:04:40.800 --> 00:04:43.270
stars for orientation instead of relying


00:04:43.280 --> 00:04:44.950
on the IMUs.


00:04:44.960 --> 00:04:46.950
>> So, it sounds like Maven has been living


00:04:46.960 --> 00:04:49.189
on borrowed time for a while now.


00:04:49.199 --> 00:04:51.749
>> In some ways, yes. The spacecraft's


00:04:51.759 --> 00:04:53.990
inability to fully recover from those


00:04:54.000 --> 00:04:57.270
2022 outages led to missed observations


00:04:57.280 --> 00:04:59.510
of significant solar flares and


00:04:59.520 --> 00:05:02.310
disrupted its communications relay role.


00:05:02.320 --> 00:05:04.950
That said, Maven still has enough fuel


00:05:04.960 --> 00:05:08.150
to remain in orbit until at least 2030.


00:05:08.160 --> 00:05:10.310
So, the hardware could theoretically


00:05:10.320 --> 00:05:11.990
keep working if they can just


00:05:12.000 --> 00:05:13.830
reestablish contact.


00:05:13.840 --> 00:05:15.510
>> What's the impact going to be if they


00:05:15.520 --> 00:05:17.590
can't recover it? I imagine the rovers


00:05:17.600 --> 00:05:19.029
depend on these orbiters for


00:05:19.039 --> 00:05:20.230
communications.


00:05:20.240 --> 00:05:22.790
>> That's a great point. Maven has been a


00:05:22.800 --> 00:05:24.550
key communications relay for the


00:05:24.560 --> 00:05:27.270
Curiosity and Perseverance rovers. With


00:05:27.280 --> 00:05:29.909
Maven offline, NASA has had to shift


00:05:29.919 --> 00:05:32.230
more of that burden to other orbiters,


00:05:32.240 --> 00:05:34.710
specifically Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter


00:05:34.720 --> 00:05:37.510
and Mars Odyssey. This puts increased


00:05:37.520 --> 00:05:39.990
pressure on those spacecraft to maintain


00:05:40.000 --> 00:05:42.070
communications and support surface


00:05:42.080 --> 00:05:43.430
science activities.


00:05:43.440 --> 00:05:45.749
>> And scientifically, what are we losing?


00:05:45.759 --> 00:05:48.070
>> Maven's scientific contributions have


00:05:48.080 --> 00:05:50.629
been enormous. It's helped us understand


00:05:50.639 --> 00:05:53.670
how Mars lost its once thick atmosphere


00:05:53.680 --> 00:05:56.150
and became the cold, dry world it is


00:05:56.160 --> 00:05:58.710
today. The data it collected on Martian


00:05:58.720 --> 00:06:00.870
weather patterns, dust storms, and


00:06:00.880 --> 00:06:03.189
auroras provided insights into the


00:06:03.199 --> 00:06:05.270
planet's climate system and potential


00:06:05.280 --> 00:06:07.990
habitability. Without Maven, we'd have


00:06:08.000 --> 00:06:10.550
critical gaps in our ongoing atmospheric


00:06:10.560 --> 00:06:11.990
studies of Mars.


00:06:12.000 --> 00:06:13.670
>> So fingers crossed that these new


00:06:13.680 --> 00:06:15.909
contact attempts work out. When will we


00:06:15.919 --> 00:06:18.469
know more? NASA should have results from


00:06:18.479 --> 00:06:20.790
their latest attempts very soon. But


00:06:20.800 --> 00:06:22.790
given the pessimistic tone from their


00:06:22.800 --> 00:06:24.950
leadership, I think we need to prepare


00:06:24.960 --> 00:06:26.790
for the possibility that Maven's


00:06:26.800 --> 00:06:29.430
remarkable decadel long mission may have


00:06:29.440 --> 00:06:31.670
come to an end. It would be a sad


00:06:31.680 --> 00:06:33.670
conclusion to such a successful


00:06:33.680 --> 00:06:36.150
spacecraft, but it's given us more than


00:06:36.160 --> 00:06:39.029
10 years of groundbreaking science.


00:06:39.039 --> 00:06:41.029
>> Absolutely. And that's well beyond its


00:06:41.039 --> 00:06:42.790
original design life, right?


00:06:42.800 --> 00:06:45.510
>> Oh, definitely. Like so many NASA


00:06:45.520 --> 00:06:48.550
missions, it far exceeded expectations.


00:06:48.560 --> 00:06:50.309
Let's hope there's one more surprise


00:06:50.319 --> 00:06:51.270
left in it.


00:06:51.280 --> 00:06:52.309
>> Here's hoping.


00:06:52.319 --> 00:06:55.110
>> Moving from Mars back to closer to home.


00:06:55.120 --> 00:06:57.350
Let's talk about that historic ISS


00:06:57.360 --> 00:06:59.830
medical evacuation. Avery, this was


00:06:59.840 --> 00:07:01.510
really unprecedented.


00:07:01.520 --> 00:07:04.070
>> It absolutely was. The four astronauts


00:07:04.080 --> 00:07:06.870
of SpaceX's Crew 11 mission are now


00:07:06.880 --> 00:07:09.029
safely back in Houston after splashing


00:07:09.039 --> 00:07:10.550
down off the coast of Long Beach,


00:07:10.560 --> 00:07:13.029
California early Thursday morning. This


00:07:13.039 --> 00:07:15.430
marked the very first medical evacuation


00:07:15.440 --> 00:07:17.589
from the International Space Station in


00:07:17.599 --> 00:07:20.070
its more than 25 year history.


00:07:20.080 --> 00:07:21.990
>> Who were the crew members involved?


00:07:22.000 --> 00:07:24.230
>> The crew consisted of NASA astronauts


00:07:24.240 --> 00:07:27.430
Zena Cardman and Mike Fininky, Kima Yui


00:07:27.440 --> 00:07:29.830
from Japan's Aerospace Agency and


00:07:29.840 --> 00:07:32.469
cosminaut Oleg Platinoff from Ross


00:07:32.479 --> 00:07:34.790
Cosmos. They launched back in early


00:07:34.800 --> 00:07:36.629
August for what was supposed to be a


00:07:36.639 --> 00:07:38.469
standard six-month stay aboard the


00:07:38.479 --> 00:07:39.350
station.


00:07:39.360 --> 00:07:41.270
>> So they came home about five weeks


00:07:41.280 --> 00:07:42.550
early. Correct.


00:07:42.560 --> 00:07:44.309
>> That's right. One of the four crew


00:07:44.319 --> 00:07:46.309
members experienced a medical issue in


00:07:46.319 --> 00:07:48.469
orbit last week and NASA made the


00:07:48.479 --> 00:07:50.790
decision to bring the entire crew home


00:07:50.800 --> 00:07:53.350
ahead of schedule. Now, NASA has been


00:07:53.360 --> 00:07:55.270
very protective of medical privacy,


00:07:55.280 --> 00:07:57.430
which is absolutely appropriate. So,


00:07:57.440 --> 00:07:59.430
they haven't disclosed which crew member


00:07:59.440 --> 00:08:01.270
had the issue or what the specific


00:08:01.280 --> 00:08:02.710
medical problem was.


00:08:02.720 --> 00:08:04.390
>> What do we know about how they're doing


00:08:04.400 --> 00:08:06.869
now? According to NASA's latest update


00:08:06.879 --> 00:08:09.189
from Friday afternoon, all four crew


00:08:09.199 --> 00:08:11.189
members are stable and undergoing


00:08:11.199 --> 00:08:13.430
standard post-flight reconditioning and


00:08:13.440 --> 00:08:15.830
evaluations at Johnson Space Center.


00:08:15.840 --> 00:08:17.749
After splashing down, they spent about a


00:08:17.759 --> 00:08:19.350
day and night at a local medical


00:08:19.360 --> 00:08:21.589
facility in California before flying to


00:08:21.599 --> 00:08:23.830
Houston. I have to say, the fact that


00:08:23.840 --> 00:08:26.309
they described them as stable and that


00:08:26.319 --> 00:08:28.150
they're doing standard post-flight


00:08:28.160 --> 00:08:31.189
evaluations suggests this wasn't a dire


00:08:31.199 --> 00:08:32.870
emergency situation.


00:08:32.880 --> 00:08:34.870
>> That's my read on it, too. And NASA


00:08:34.880 --> 00:08:36.709
officials have been pretty clear about


00:08:36.719 --> 00:08:38.469
describing this as a deliberate,


00:08:38.479 --> 00:08:40.949
carefully planned operation rather than


00:08:40.959 --> 00:08:43.750
a panic situation. In fact, one NASA


00:08:43.760 --> 00:08:45.190
representative said, and I'm


00:08:45.200 --> 00:08:47.590
paraphrasing here, this is NASA at its


00:08:47.600 --> 00:08:50.070
finest, referring to how smoothly the


00:08:50.080 --> 00:08:52.230
evacuation and splashdown went.


00:08:52.240 --> 00:08:53.910
>> Can you walk us through what a medical


00:08:53.920 --> 00:08:55.910
evacuation from the ISS actually


00:08:55.920 --> 00:08:59.110
involves? This seems incredibly complex.


00:08:59.120 --> 00:09:01.350
>> It is. First, you have to understand


00:09:01.360 --> 00:09:03.990
that the ISS has medical capabilities on


00:09:04.000 --> 00:09:06.070
board. There's medical equipment,


00:09:06.080 --> 00:09:08.150
supplies, and the crew receives training


00:09:08.160 --> 00:09:10.550
to handle various medical situations.


00:09:10.560 --> 00:09:12.389
They can consult with flight surgeons on


00:09:12.399 --> 00:09:14.870
the ground in real time. But sometimes


00:09:14.880 --> 00:09:17.030
groundbased medical care is simply


00:09:17.040 --> 00:09:18.949
necessary, either for more advanced


00:09:18.959 --> 00:09:21.030
diagnostic equipment or for treatment


00:09:21.040 --> 00:09:23.350
options that aren't available in orbit.


00:09:23.360 --> 00:09:25.190
>> So, the decision to bring someone home


00:09:25.200 --> 00:09:27.030
is never made lightly.


00:09:27.040 --> 00:09:29.509
>> Exactly. In this case, the medical issue


00:09:29.519 --> 00:09:31.509
required evaluation and potential


00:09:31.519 --> 00:09:33.190
treatment that couldn't be done on the


00:09:33.200 --> 00:09:35.509
station. Once that call was made, they


00:09:35.519 --> 00:09:37.110
had to prepare the crew Dragon


00:09:37.120 --> 00:09:39.030
spacecraft, the same one they arrived


00:09:39.040 --> 00:09:41.110
in, named Endeavor, for an early


00:09:41.120 --> 00:09:43.350
departure. This involves checking all


00:09:43.360 --> 00:09:45.590
systems, planning the undocking and


00:09:45.600 --> 00:09:47.829
re-entry trajectory, coordinating with


00:09:47.839 --> 00:09:49.910
recovery teams, and making sure weather


00:09:49.920 --> 00:09:51.190
conditions would be suitable for


00:09:51.200 --> 00:09:52.230
splashdown.


00:09:52.240 --> 00:09:54.550
>> And they successfully executed all of


00:09:54.560 --> 00:09:56.389
that in just a few days.


00:09:56.399 --> 00:09:58.949
>> They did. The crew undocked from the ISS


00:09:58.959 --> 00:10:01.350
on January 14th, completed their


00:10:01.360 --> 00:10:03.750
de-orbit burn, and splashed down safely


00:10:03.760 --> 00:10:06.389
early on January 15th. Recovery teams


00:10:06.399 --> 00:10:08.230
were standing by and quickly retrieved


00:10:08.240 --> 00:10:10.150
the capsule and crew. The whole


00:10:10.160 --> 00:10:12.470
operation went remarkably smoothly.


00:10:12.480 --> 00:10:14.949
>> What about the ISS itself? How is it


00:10:14.959 --> 00:10:16.949
operating with a reduced crew?


00:10:16.959 --> 00:10:18.870
>> That's a great question. Right now, the


00:10:18.880 --> 00:10:20.389
station is operating with what they're


00:10:20.399 --> 00:10:22.710
calling a skeleton crew of just three


00:10:22.720 --> 00:10:25.269
people. NASA astronaut Chris Williams


00:10:25.279 --> 00:10:27.990
and two Ross Cosmos cosminauts Sergey


00:10:28.000 --> 00:10:31.190
Kutz Vertzkov and Sergey Mikayv. That's


00:10:31.200 --> 00:10:33.110
less than half the normal compliment of


00:10:33.120 --> 00:10:34.470
seven crew members.


00:10:34.480 --> 00:10:36.470
>> Can three people effectively run the


00:10:36.480 --> 00:10:37.509
ISS?


00:10:37.519 --> 00:10:39.430
>> They can maintain it and keep critical


00:10:39.440 --> 00:10:41.350
systems running, but it definitely


00:10:41.360 --> 00:10:43.590
limits what science can be done. The


00:10:43.600 --> 00:10:45.190
station won't return to its full


00:10:45.200 --> 00:10:47.990
operational capacity until SpaceX's Crew


00:10:48.000 --> 00:10:49.910
12 mission arrives. That's currently


00:10:49.920 --> 00:10:52.389
scheduled for February 15th. Though NASA


00:10:52.399 --> 00:10:54.230
and SpaceX are looking at whether they


00:10:54.240 --> 00:10:56.230
can move that timeline up a bit,


00:10:56.240 --> 00:10:58.790
>> I imagine this whole situation must have


00:10:58.800 --> 00:11:00.550
been quite stressful for everyone


00:11:00.560 --> 00:11:01.590
involved.


00:11:01.600 --> 00:11:03.910
>> No doubt. But what strikes me is how


00:11:03.920 --> 00:11:05.670
calmly and professionally it was


00:11:05.680 --> 00:11:07.269
handled. In one of the final


00:11:07.279 --> 00:11:09.910
communications before undocking, Crew 11


00:11:09.920 --> 00:11:11.750
commander Mike Finke said it was


00:11:11.760 --> 00:11:13.829
bittersweet to be leaving early. He


00:11:13.839 --> 00:11:16.069
handed over command of the ISS to Chris


00:11:16.079 --> 00:11:18.310
Williams and you could hear in his voice


00:11:18.320 --> 00:11:19.910
that he would have preferred to complete


00:11:19.920 --> 00:11:22.150
the full mission. But he also understood


00:11:22.160 --> 00:11:24.550
the necessity of coming home. It really


00:11:24.560 --> 00:11:26.550
speaks to the incredible planning and


00:11:26.560 --> 00:11:28.389
preparation that goes into human space


00:11:28.399 --> 00:11:31.110
flight. Even in an offnominal situation


00:11:31.120 --> 00:11:33.509
like this, the systems and procedures


00:11:33.519 --> 00:11:35.590
worked exactly as designed.


00:11:35.600 --> 00:11:37.350
>> And I think it's worth noting that this


00:11:37.360 --> 00:11:39.590
won't affect other upcoming missions.


00:11:39.600 --> 00:11:41.829
NASA administrator Jared Isaacman


00:11:41.839 --> 00:11:43.829
specifically stated that this ISS


00:11:43.839 --> 00:11:45.910
evacuation shouldn't interfere with the


00:11:45.920 --> 00:11:48.150
upcoming Artemis 2 moon mission, which


00:11:48.160 --> 00:11:49.990
is still on track for a possible launch


00:11:50.000 --> 00:11:52.630
as early as February 6th. That's good to


00:11:52.640 --> 00:11:55.269
hear. Well, here's hoping for a full


00:11:55.279 --> 00:11:57.110
recovery for whichever crew member


00:11:57.120 --> 00:11:59.590
needed the medical attention. And kudos


00:11:59.600 --> 00:12:02.230
to everyone involved in executing such a


00:12:02.240 --> 00:12:05.030
complex operation so flawlessly.


00:12:05.040 --> 00:12:07.590
>> Agreed. It really was NASA at its


00:12:07.600 --> 00:12:10.629
finest. Switching gears now to European


00:12:10.639 --> 00:12:13.430
space flight. Avery, Europe is about to


00:12:13.440 --> 00:12:15.990
debut a significantly more powerful


00:12:16.000 --> 00:12:18.069
version of its new rocket. Right.


00:12:18.079 --> 00:12:20.150
>> That's right, Anna. Aryan Space has


00:12:20.160 --> 00:12:21.829
announced that the first flight of the


00:12:21.839 --> 00:12:24.790
Aryan 64 will launch on February 12th


00:12:24.800 --> 00:12:26.710
from the Gana Space Center in French


00:12:26.720 --> 00:12:28.790
Gana. This is the four booster


00:12:28.800 --> 00:12:31.030
configuration of the Aryan 6 and it


00:12:31.040 --> 00:12:33.350
represents a major step up in capability


00:12:33.360 --> 00:12:35.910
for European launch services. Let's back


00:12:35.920 --> 00:12:38.230
up a second for anyone who might not be


00:12:38.240 --> 00:12:40.710
familiar with the Aryan 6. Can you give


00:12:40.720 --> 00:12:41.990
us the background?


00:12:42.000 --> 00:12:44.710
>> Sure. The Aryan 6 is Europe's newest


00:12:44.720 --> 00:12:46.629
heavy lift rocket designed to replace


00:12:46.639 --> 00:12:48.870
the Aryan 5 which served for nearly


00:12:48.880 --> 00:12:51.190
three decades. The inaugural flight was


00:12:51.200 --> 00:12:54.949
back in July 2024. And throughout 2025,


00:12:54.959 --> 00:12:57.670
Aryan Space flew four more missions, all


00:12:57.680 --> 00:12:59.910
carrying payloads for organizations like


00:12:59.920 --> 00:13:03.430
ESA, UMTASAT, and CENS, the French Space


00:13:03.440 --> 00:13:06.150
Agency. And all of those flights used


00:13:06.160 --> 00:13:09.190
the Arion 62 configuration.


00:13:09.200 --> 00:13:13.430
>> Exactly. The Arion 62 uses two P120C


00:13:13.440 --> 00:13:15.670
solid fuel boosters strapped to the side


00:13:15.680 --> 00:13:17.750
of the rocket's core stage. Each of


00:13:17.760 --> 00:13:20.310
those boosters produces roughly 4500


00:13:20.320 --> 00:13:22.790
kons of thrust. It's been doing great


00:13:22.800 --> 00:13:24.870
for medium lift missions with a capacity


00:13:24.880 --> 00:13:27.670
to deliver about 10.3 tons to low Earth


00:13:27.680 --> 00:13:28.470
orbit.


00:13:28.480 --> 00:13:31.590
>> So the Aryan 64 just adds two more


00:13:31.600 --> 00:13:32.629
boosters,


00:13:32.639 --> 00:13:35.509
>> right? It uses four of those P120C


00:13:35.519 --> 00:13:37.430
boosters instead of two. And that makes


00:13:37.440 --> 00:13:39.990
a dramatic difference in capability. The


00:13:40.000 --> 00:13:44.150
Arion 64 can deliver up to 21.6 tons to


00:13:44.160 --> 00:13:46.150
low Earth orbit, more than double what


00:13:46.160 --> 00:13:49.190
the Arion 62 can handle. That puts it in


00:13:49.200 --> 00:13:51.110
the heavy lift category, competing with


00:13:51.120 --> 00:13:53.670
rockets like SpaceX's Falcon Heavy.


00:13:53.680 --> 00:13:55.910
>> That's a significant jump. What's


00:13:55.920 --> 00:13:57.910
driving the need for this more powerful


00:13:57.920 --> 00:13:58.790
version?


00:13:58.800 --> 00:14:00.629
>> Well, this first mission actually gives


00:14:00.639 --> 00:14:03.590
us a perfect example. The Arion 64's


00:14:03.600 --> 00:14:05.030
first flight will be launching


00:14:05.040 --> 00:14:07.350
satellites for Amazon's project Cooper


00:14:07.360 --> 00:14:09.910
broadband internet constellation. Arion


00:14:09.920 --> 00:14:11.990
space has an 18 flight contract with


00:14:12.000 --> 00:14:13.910
Amazon. And this first mission


00:14:13.920 --> 00:14:17.430
designated LE01, which stands for LEO


00:14:17.440 --> 00:14:20.470
Europe01, will deploy 32 Cooper


00:14:20.480 --> 00:14:21.430
satellites.


00:14:21.440 --> 00:14:23.750
>> Amazon's competing with Space X's


00:14:23.760 --> 00:14:25.030
Starlink. Right.


00:14:25.040 --> 00:14:27.910
>> That's right. Amazon already has about


00:14:27.920 --> 00:14:29.829
180 satellites in orbit and they're


00:14:29.839 --> 00:14:32.150
rapidly building out the constellation.


00:14:32.160 --> 00:14:34.470
Having access to the more powerful Arion


00:14:34.480 --> 00:14:36.870
64 means they can launch more satellites


00:14:36.880 --> 00:14:39.110
at once which speeds up the deployment


00:14:39.120 --> 00:14:41.110
schedule and reduces the total number of


00:14:41.120 --> 00:14:42.310
launches needed.


00:14:42.320 --> 00:14:44.230
>> Is there anything else notable about


00:14:44.240 --> 00:14:45.910
this particular flight?


00:14:45.920 --> 00:14:47.910
>> Yes, actually this will be the first


00:14:47.920 --> 00:14:50.230
Arion 6 mission to use the rocket's


00:14:50.240 --> 00:14:53.269
larger 20 m long fairing. All previous


00:14:53.279 --> 00:14:56.150
flights used a shorter 14 meter fairing.


00:14:56.160 --> 00:14:58.230
The longer fairing provides more volume


00:14:58.240 --> 00:15:01.030
for larger payloads or in this case for


00:15:01.040 --> 00:15:02.949
fitting more satellites into the payload


00:15:02.959 --> 00:15:03.750
stack.


00:15:03.760 --> 00:15:05.829
>> How long will the mission last?


00:15:05.839 --> 00:15:07.750
>> Arion space hasn't published the


00:15:07.760 --> 00:15:09.350
complete mission breakdown yet, but


00:15:09.360 --> 00:15:11.269
they've stated the entire flight will


00:15:11.279 --> 00:15:13.829
last 1 hour and 54 minutes. That


00:15:13.839 --> 00:15:16.389
presumably includes deploying all 32


00:15:16.399 --> 00:15:18.310
satellites and then deorbiting the


00:15:18.320 --> 00:15:20.150
rocket's upper stage in a controlled


00:15:20.160 --> 00:15:21.990
manner, which is important for reducing


00:15:22.000 --> 00:15:24.069
space debris. What does this mean for


00:15:24.079 --> 00:15:26.230
Aryan Space's launch cadence going


00:15:26.240 --> 00:15:27.269
forward?


00:15:27.279 --> 00:15:29.670
>> They're being pretty ambitious. Arion


00:15:29.680 --> 00:15:31.590
space is aiming to double the number of


00:15:31.600 --> 00:15:34.150
Arion 6 launches this year compared to


00:15:34.160 --> 00:15:36.949
2025. That would mean as many as eight


00:15:36.959 --> 00:15:39.990
Arion 6 flights over the next 12 months.


00:15:40.000 --> 00:15:41.509
Given that they're still ramping up


00:15:41.519 --> 00:15:43.750
operations with what is still a fairly


00:15:43.760 --> 00:15:46.069
new rocket, that's a challenging goal,


00:15:46.079 --> 00:15:47.750
but it shows their confidence.


00:15:47.760 --> 00:15:49.430
>> Are there any other upgrades in the


00:15:49.440 --> 00:15:50.310
works?


00:15:50.320 --> 00:15:52.949
>> Actually, yes. The company is developing


00:15:52.959 --> 00:15:55.189
an upgraded version of the solid fuel


00:15:55.199 --> 00:15:58.069
booster called the P160C.


00:15:58.079 --> 00:16:00.550
It carries an additional 14 tons of


00:16:00.560 --> 00:16:02.870
solid propellant compared to the current


00:16:02.880 --> 00:16:04.550
P120C.


00:16:04.560 --> 00:16:06.310
That upgrade has already been fully


00:16:06.320 --> 00:16:09.030
qualified for use on both the Aryan 62


00:16:09.040 --> 00:16:11.910
for medium lift missions, the Aryan 64


00:16:11.920 --> 00:16:14.550
for heavy lift, the Vega C for smaller


00:16:14.560 --> 00:16:16.790
payloads, and these future upgrades.


00:16:16.800 --> 00:16:18.949
Europe is positioning itself to be very


00:16:18.959 --> 00:16:20.550
competitive in the commercial launch


00:16:20.560 --> 00:16:22.949
market. And that's crucial, especially


00:16:22.959 --> 00:16:25.110
as we see increasing competition from


00:16:25.120 --> 00:16:27.749
SpaceX, China, and other emerging launch


00:16:27.759 --> 00:16:28.629
providers.


00:16:28.639 --> 00:16:30.790
>> Will the February 12th launch be


00:16:30.800 --> 00:16:33.350
publicly viewable? Aryan Space typically


00:16:33.360 --> 00:16:34.870
provides live coverage of their


00:16:34.880 --> 00:16:36.870
launches, so I'd expect we'll be able to


00:16:36.880 --> 00:16:38.870
watch this historic first flight of the


00:16:38.880 --> 00:16:41.829
Aryan 64. It should be quite a sight.


00:16:41.839 --> 00:16:43.829
Those four boosters firing together


00:16:43.839 --> 00:16:45.990
should make for an impressive liftoff.


00:16:46.000 --> 00:16:48.150
>> I'll definitely be watching. It's great


00:16:48.160 --> 00:16:50.470
to see Europe maintaining and expanding


00:16:50.480 --> 00:16:52.710
its independent access to space.


00:16:52.720 --> 00:16:54.629
>> Anna, let's talk about planetary


00:16:54.639 --> 00:16:56.710
defense. Scientists have been conducting


00:16:56.720 --> 00:16:58.710
some fascinating experiments using


00:16:58.720 --> 00:17:00.949
particle accelerators to understand how


00:17:00.959 --> 00:17:03.110
asteroids might respond to deflection


00:17:03.120 --> 00:17:05.189
attempts. This is really cool work,


00:17:05.199 --> 00:17:07.590
Avery. An international research team


00:17:07.600 --> 00:17:10.230
used CERN's high radiation to materials


00:17:10.240 --> 00:17:13.510
facility, that's Hyradmat, to simulate


00:17:13.520 --> 00:17:15.909
what happens when high energy impacts


00:17:15.919 --> 00:17:18.549
strike ironrich asteroids. And what they


00:17:18.559 --> 00:17:20.549
found could significantly change our


00:17:20.559 --> 00:17:23.189
approach to planetary defense. Before we


00:17:23.199 --> 00:17:25.110
get into the results, can you set up the


00:17:25.120 --> 00:17:27.750
context, why is this research important?


00:17:27.760 --> 00:17:31.110
>> Sure. We know there are around 37,000


00:17:31.120 --> 00:17:34.789
known near Earth asteroids and 120 short


00:17:34.799 --> 00:17:36.950
period comets whose orbits bring them


00:17:36.960 --> 00:17:39.350
close to Earth. While scientists are


00:17:39.360 --> 00:17:41.110
confident that none of the known


00:17:41.120 --> 00:17:43.270
potentially hazardous objects will


00:17:43.280 --> 00:17:45.669
strike Earth within the next century, we


00:17:45.679 --> 00:17:47.750
know that eventually planetary defense


00:17:47.760 --> 00:17:50.390
measures will be needed. And NASA's Dart


00:17:50.400 --> 00:17:52.390
mission demonstrated one approach, the


00:17:52.400 --> 00:17:53.909
kinetic impactor.


00:17:53.919 --> 00:17:57.190
>> Exactly. In 2022, Dart successfully


00:17:57.200 --> 00:17:59.350
struck the asteroid Demorphus and


00:17:59.360 --> 00:18:01.350
altered its orbit. But to do this


00:18:01.360 --> 00:18:03.750
reliably and develop effective defense


00:18:03.760 --> 00:18:05.909
strategies, we need to understand how


00:18:05.919 --> 00:18:07.990
different types of asteroids respond to


00:18:08.000 --> 00:18:10.230
impacts. That's where this new research


00:18:10.240 --> 00:18:11.110
comes in.


00:18:11.120 --> 00:18:13.510
>> So, they focus specifically on ironrich


00:18:13.520 --> 00:18:14.549
asteroids,


00:18:14.559 --> 00:18:17.029
>> right? What astronomers call Mtype


00:18:17.039 --> 00:18:18.950
asteroids. These are thought to be


00:18:18.960 --> 00:18:21.350
exposed metallic cores of ancient


00:18:21.360 --> 00:18:23.510
protolanets that were shattered in


00:18:23.520 --> 00:18:25.430
collisions billions of years ago.


00:18:25.440 --> 00:18:27.350
They're made primarily of iron and


00:18:27.360 --> 00:18:29.830
nickel, unlike the more common rocky


00:18:29.840 --> 00:18:32.070
asteroids or icy comets.


00:18:32.080 --> 00:18:34.310
>> How did they simulate an asteroid impact


00:18:34.320 --> 00:18:35.430
in a lab?


00:18:35.440 --> 00:18:37.350
>> This is where it gets really clever.


00:18:37.360 --> 00:18:39.990
They used a sample of the Campo Delio


00:18:40.000 --> 00:18:42.310
iron meteorite, which is a wellstied


00:18:42.320 --> 00:18:44.549
iron meteorite from Argentina. They


00:18:44.559 --> 00:18:47.909
subjected it to extremely energetic 440


00:18:47.919 --> 00:18:51.430
GEV proton beams at CERN's highradmat


00:18:51.440 --> 00:18:53.750
facility at CERN. That's an incredibly


00:18:53.760 --> 00:18:55.110
high energy level.


00:18:55.120 --> 00:18:56.870
>> And how did they measure what happened


00:18:56.880 --> 00:18:57.990
to the sample?


00:18:58.000 --> 00:18:59.990
>> They used a technique called Doppler


00:19:00.000 --> 00:19:02.390
vibrometry, which can detect tiny


00:19:02.400 --> 00:19:04.710
surface vibrations. This allowed them to


00:19:04.720 --> 00:19:06.870
capture realtime data on how the


00:19:06.880 --> 00:19:09.270
material responded to rapidly increasing


00:19:09.280 --> 00:19:11.590
stress, all without destroying the


00:19:11.600 --> 00:19:13.990
sample. They could see exactly how iron


00:19:14.000 --> 00:19:16.310
behaved under extreme conditions.


00:19:16.320 --> 00:19:17.669
>> What did they discover?


00:19:17.679 --> 00:19:19.029
>> This is where it gets really


00:19:19.039 --> 00:19:21.029
interesting. The results showed that


00:19:21.039 --> 00:19:23.750
Mtype asteroids can absorb significantly


00:19:23.760 --> 00:19:26.150
more energy without fragmenting than


00:19:26.160 --> 00:19:28.470
conventional models predicted. But even


00:19:28.480 --> 00:19:30.310
more surprisingly, the meteorite


00:19:30.320 --> 00:19:32.470
actually got tougher as it was subjected


00:19:32.480 --> 00:19:34.230
to increasing stress.


00:19:34.240 --> 00:19:37.110
>> Wait, it got stronger under stress?


00:19:37.120 --> 00:19:39.909
>> Yes. The researchers found that the iron


00:19:39.919 --> 00:19:42.310
dissipated more energy as stress


00:19:42.320 --> 00:19:44.950
increased, suggesting that the internal


00:19:44.960 --> 00:19:47.510
structure of asteroids can redistribute


00:19:47.520 --> 00:19:50.549
and amplify stress in unexpected ways,


00:19:50.559 --> 00:19:52.630
similar to what we see in complex


00:19:52.640 --> 00:19:54.470
composite materials.


00:19:54.480 --> 00:19:56.870
>> That seems counterintuitive. You'd


00:19:56.880 --> 00:19:59.190
expect materials to weaken under extreme


00:19:59.200 --> 00:20:01.190
stress, not strengthen.


00:20:01.200 --> 00:20:03.350
>> That's exactly why this is such an


00:20:03.360 --> 00:20:05.590
important finding. It contradicts what


00:20:05.600 --> 00:20:07.990
conventional models have suggested. One


00:20:08.000 --> 00:20:09.909
of the study's co-authors, Professor


00:20:09.919 --> 00:20:12.230
Gian Luca Gregori from the University of


00:20:12.240 --> 00:20:14.789
Oxford said this is the first time


00:20:14.799 --> 00:20:16.870
they've been able to observe in real


00:20:16.880 --> 00:20:19.430
time how an actual meteorite sample


00:20:19.440 --> 00:20:22.230
deforms, strengthens, and adapts under


00:20:22.240 --> 00:20:24.630
extreme conditions without destroying


00:20:24.640 --> 00:20:25.270
it.


00:20:25.280 --> 00:20:27.110
>> So, what does this mean for planetary


00:20:27.120 --> 00:20:28.470
defense strategies?


00:20:28.480 --> 00:20:30.789
>> A couple of things. First, it means that


00:20:30.799 --> 00:20:33.270
ironrich asteroids might be harder to


00:20:33.280 --> 00:20:35.350
deflect than we thought because they can


00:20:35.360 --> 00:20:37.270
absorb more energy without breaking


00:20:37.280 --> 00:20:39.909
apart. But it also suggests that we


00:20:39.919 --> 00:20:42.149
could potentially deliver energy deep


00:20:42.159 --> 00:20:44.710
inside an asteroid without fragmenting


00:20:44.720 --> 00:20:45.350
it.


00:20:45.360 --> 00:20:47.110
>> That could be useful if you want to push


00:20:47.120 --> 00:20:49.430
an asteroid rather than shatter it.


00:20:49.440 --> 00:20:52.149
>> Exactly. The research also helps explain


00:20:52.159 --> 00:20:54.390
a long-standing puzzle in planetary


00:20:54.400 --> 00:20:57.110
defense. Why there's often a discrepancy


00:20:57.120 --> 00:20:59.350
between what we infer from meteorite


00:20:59.360 --> 00:21:02.149
breakup in Earth's atmosphere and actual


00:21:02.159 --> 00:21:04.149
laboratory measurements of meteorite


00:21:04.159 --> 00:21:06.950
strength. This study shows that internal


00:21:06.960 --> 00:21:09.029
stress redistribution within the


00:21:09.039 --> 00:21:11.430
heterogeneous structure of meteorites


00:21:11.440 --> 00:21:13.510
can explain that difference.


00:21:13.520 --> 00:21:15.029
>> This sounds like it could inform new


00:21:15.039 --> 00:21:16.549
deflection methods.


00:21:16.559 --> 00:21:18.549
>> That's the hope. The data could help


00:21:18.559 --> 00:21:20.950
develop redirection techniques that push


00:21:20.960 --> 00:21:23.510
asteroids more effectively while keeping


00:21:23.520 --> 00:21:25.990
them intact. After all, the last thing


00:21:26.000 --> 00:21:28.149
you want when deflecting an asteroid is


00:21:28.159 --> 00:21:30.390
to break it into multiple pieces that


00:21:30.400 --> 00:21:32.230
might still pose a threat.


00:21:32.240 --> 00:21:33.750
>> Have they tested this with other types


00:21:33.760 --> 00:21:35.430
of asteroid materials?


00:21:35.440 --> 00:21:37.590
>> This particular study focused on iron


00:21:37.600 --> 00:21:39.990
meteorites, but the methodology could be


00:21:40.000 --> 00:21:42.230
applied to other types of asteroids,


00:21:42.240 --> 00:21:44.789
rocky asteroids, carbonacious asteroids,


00:21:44.799 --> 00:21:47.510
and so on. Each type would likely behave


00:21:47.520 --> 00:21:49.909
differently under extreme stress. And


00:21:49.919 --> 00:21:51.830
understanding those differences is


00:21:51.840 --> 00:21:54.070
crucial for developing a comprehensive


00:21:54.080 --> 00:21:55.990
planetary defense toolkit.


00:21:56.000 --> 00:21:57.750
>> I think what's particularly valuable


00:21:57.760 --> 00:21:59.190
here is that they've developed a


00:21:59.200 --> 00:22:01.590
technique that can test actual meteorite


00:22:01.600 --> 00:22:04.390
samples non-destructively. That means we


00:22:04.400 --> 00:22:06.549
can build up a library of data on how


00:22:06.559 --> 00:22:08.710
different asteroid materials behave


00:22:08.720 --> 00:22:10.549
without having to rely solely on


00:22:10.559 --> 00:22:13.029
computer simulations or destroying


00:22:13.039 --> 00:22:15.830
precious samples. And as we continue to


00:22:15.840 --> 00:22:17.590
study asteroids with missions like


00:22:17.600 --> 00:22:20.870
Osiris X and Hayabusa 2, we'll have more


00:22:20.880 --> 00:22:22.390
samples to test.


00:22:22.400 --> 00:22:24.470
>> Exactly. The combination of sample


00:22:24.480 --> 00:22:26.710
return missions, laboratory testing like


00:22:26.720 --> 00:22:28.789
this, and missions like DART that


00:22:28.799 --> 00:22:30.470
demonstrate actual deflection


00:22:30.480 --> 00:22:32.789
techniques, it's all building toward a


00:22:32.799 --> 00:22:34.710
real capability to protect Earth from


00:22:34.720 --> 00:22:37.190
asteroid impacts. It's reassuring to


00:22:37.200 --> 00:22:39.270
know that even though we don't face an


00:22:39.280 --> 00:22:41.190
immediate threat, we're doing the


00:22:41.200 --> 00:22:43.029
groundwork now, so we'll be prepared


00:22:43.039 --> 00:22:44.390
when we need to be.


00:22:44.400 --> 00:22:46.549
>> Absolutely. And this research was just


00:22:46.559 --> 00:22:48.870
published in Nature Communications, so


00:22:48.880 --> 00:22:50.549
it's getting a lot of attention from the


00:22:50.559 --> 00:22:52.230
planetary defense community.


00:22:52.240 --> 00:22:54.230
>> Avery, our next story sounds like


00:22:54.240 --> 00:22:56.470
something out of science fiction, but


00:22:56.480 --> 00:22:59.029
it's very much real and increasingly


00:22:59.039 --> 00:23:01.510
necessary. China has released the


00:23:01.520 --> 00:23:03.830
world's first practical software for


00:23:03.840 --> 00:23:05.750
keeping time on the moon.


00:23:05.760 --> 00:23:08.630
>> Lunar timekeeping software. When you say


00:23:08.640 --> 00:23:10.789
it out loud, it really drives home how


00:23:10.799 --> 00:23:13.430
much space exploration has advanced. Why


00:23:13.440 --> 00:23:15.350
do we need to keep time differently on


00:23:15.360 --> 00:23:16.070
the moon?


00:23:16.080 --> 00:23:18.310
>> It all comes down to Einstein's theory


00:23:18.320 --> 00:23:21.110
of general relativity. Time doesn't pass


00:23:21.120 --> 00:23:23.110
at the same rate everywhere. It's


00:23:23.120 --> 00:23:26.149
affected by both gravity and velocity.


00:23:26.159 --> 00:23:27.990
The moon's gravity is weaker than


00:23:28.000 --> 00:23:30.070
Earth's, which means time actually


00:23:30.080 --> 00:23:32.390
passes slightly faster on the moon than


00:23:32.400 --> 00:23:33.830
it does on Earth.


00:23:33.840 --> 00:23:35.990
>> How much faster are we talking about?


00:23:36.000 --> 00:23:39.990
>> About 56 millionth of a second per day.


00:23:40.000 --> 00:23:42.070
Now, that might not sound like much, but


00:23:42.080 --> 00:23:44.310
it adds up over time, and it can


00:23:44.320 --> 00:23:47.029
seriously disrupt navigation systems,


00:23:47.039 --> 00:23:48.789
especially when you're trying to do


00:23:48.799 --> 00:23:51.190
precision work on the lunar surface.


00:23:51.200 --> 00:23:53.029
>> So, this is a precision navigation


00:23:53.039 --> 00:23:53.830
issue.


00:23:53.840 --> 00:23:56.870
>> Exactly. Think about GPS on Earth. The


00:23:56.880 --> 00:23:59.029
satellites constantly have to correct


00:23:59.039 --> 00:24:01.190
for relativistic effects caused by


00:24:01.200 --> 00:24:03.830
gravity and motion. Those corrections


00:24:03.840 --> 00:24:05.990
are what allow your phone to pinpoint


00:24:06.000 --> 00:24:08.630
your location within just a few meters.


00:24:08.640 --> 00:24:11.269
Without accounting for relativity, GPS


00:24:11.279 --> 00:24:13.350
would be useless within minutes.


00:24:13.360 --> 00:24:15.110
>> And the moon is about to have a similar


00:24:15.120 --> 00:24:16.870
need for precision navigation.


00:24:16.880 --> 00:24:19.350
>> Right? In the past, this wasn't really a


00:24:19.360 --> 00:24:21.110
problem because lunar missions were


00:24:21.120 --> 00:24:23.990
rare, short, and mostly isolated.


00:24:24.000 --> 00:24:26.310
Engineers could just use Earth time and


00:24:26.320 --> 00:24:28.310
apply mission specific fixes when


00:24:28.320 --> 00:24:31.029
needed. But that's changing rapidly


00:24:31.039 --> 00:24:32.789
>> because we're about to have multiple


00:24:32.799 --> 00:24:34.630
spacecraft and eventually humans


00:24:34.640 --> 00:24:36.870
operating on the moon simultaneously.


00:24:36.880 --> 00:24:39.590
>> Exactly. Under those conditions, relying


00:24:39.600 --> 00:24:42.149
on custom fixes for each mission becomes


00:24:42.159 --> 00:24:44.870
risky and inefficient. You need a


00:24:44.880 --> 00:24:47.269
standardized lunar time reference that


00:24:47.279 --> 00:24:48.870
everyone can use.


00:24:48.880 --> 00:24:50.789
>> So what exactly did the Chinese team


00:24:50.799 --> 00:24:51.510
create?


00:24:51.520 --> 00:24:53.190
>> Researchers from the Purple Mountain


00:24:53.200 --> 00:24:55.510
Observatory in Nanjing developed


00:24:55.520 --> 00:24:59.430
detailed software called LTE440.


00:24:59.440 --> 00:25:02.230
That stands for lunar time ephemeris.


00:25:02.240 --> 00:25:04.630
It's based on modern planetary data and


00:25:04.640 --> 00:25:07.190
tracks how lunar time drifts relative to


00:25:07.200 --> 00:25:09.590
Earth time. The software automates


00:25:09.600 --> 00:25:11.990
calculations that once required deep


00:25:12.000 --> 00:25:14.549
expertise in relativity and celestial


00:25:14.559 --> 00:25:15.750
mechanics.


00:25:15.760 --> 00:25:17.190
>> How accurate is it?


00:25:17.200 --> 00:25:19.510
>> Remarkably accurate. The researchers


00:25:19.520 --> 00:25:21.350
found their method stays accurate to


00:25:21.360 --> 00:25:24.310
within a few tens of nanconds even when


00:25:24.320 --> 00:25:26.950
projected over a thousand years. And to


00:25:26.960 --> 00:25:29.190
keep daily differences within about 10


00:25:29.200 --> 00:25:31.750
nanconds, the calculations need to be


00:25:31.760 --> 00:25:34.870
accurate to parts in 10 trillion. Their


00:25:34.880 --> 00:25:39.029
tests show LTE 440 meets that standard.


00:25:39.039 --> 00:25:41.190
>> Why such extreme precision?


00:25:41.200 --> 00:25:43.269
>> Well, navigation is one driver, but


00:25:43.279 --> 00:25:45.590
there's also science. The moon offers


00:25:45.600 --> 00:25:47.830
unique conditions for astronomy. No


00:25:47.840 --> 00:25:50.470
atmosphere, minimal interference. One


00:25:50.480 --> 00:25:53.430
promising idea is Earth Moon very long


00:25:53.440 --> 00:25:56.149
baseline interpherometry where you link


00:25:56.159 --> 00:25:58.549
radio telescopes on Earth and the moon


00:25:58.559 --> 00:26:00.710
to create sharper images of distant


00:26:00.720 --> 00:26:03.350
objects. And that requires extremely


00:26:03.360 --> 00:26:04.549
precise timing.


00:26:04.559 --> 00:26:07.110
>> Right? Signals recorded on both bodies


00:26:07.120 --> 00:26:09.110
need to be timestamped to better than a


00:26:09.120 --> 00:26:11.350
microscond. To allow for instrument


00:26:11.360 --> 00:26:13.750
noise, the underlying time model needs


00:26:13.760 --> 00:26:16.230
to be even more accurate. Hence the


00:26:16.240 --> 00:26:18.549
extreme precision requirements.


00:26:18.559 --> 00:26:20.950
>> How does the software actually work?


00:26:20.960 --> 00:26:23.430
Instead of using long equations, they


00:26:23.440 --> 00:26:25.590
used a numerical approach based on a


00:26:25.600 --> 00:26:28.710
planetary model called DE440,


00:26:28.720 --> 00:26:30.310
which tracks the positions and


00:26:30.320 --> 00:26:32.549
velocities of solar system bodies with


00:26:32.559 --> 00:26:35.110
high precision. From that data, they


00:26:35.120 --> 00:26:37.510
computed how time near the moon differs


00:26:37.520 --> 00:26:40.070
from a solar system reference time. The


00:26:40.080 --> 00:26:42.390
software stores these results in compact


00:26:42.400 --> 00:26:45.190
files that can be quickly interpolated.


00:26:45.200 --> 00:26:48.230
>> What affects lunar time most? The moon's


00:26:48.240 --> 00:26:50.470
motion and the sun's gravity dominate


00:26:50.480 --> 00:26:53.510
the effect, but Earth, Jupiter, and even


00:26:53.520 --> 00:26:55.990
distant objects in the Kyper belt add


00:26:56.000 --> 00:26:58.390
smaller effects. There are monthly and


00:26:58.400 --> 00:27:00.070
yearly patterns that range from


00:27:00.080 --> 00:27:02.710
milliseconds down to micros secondsonds.


00:27:02.720 --> 00:27:04.310
>> I'm curious about the international


00:27:04.320 --> 00:27:06.630
response to this. Is China the only one


00:27:06.640 --> 00:27:07.830
working on this?


00:27:07.840 --> 00:27:10.470
>> That's a great question. Jonathan McDow,


00:27:10.480 --> 00:27:12.710
an astronomer at Harvard, told reporters


00:27:12.720 --> 00:27:14.870
that similar efforts are underway in the


00:27:14.880 --> 00:27:17.029
United States, but he's not aware of


00:27:17.039 --> 00:27:19.590
another openly available tool like this.


00:27:19.600 --> 00:27:22.149
He emphasized that this shows China is


00:27:22.159 --> 00:27:24.470
serious about lunar exploration and is


00:27:24.480 --> 00:27:26.630
being quite open about sharing its lunar


00:27:26.640 --> 00:27:27.990
related research.


00:27:28.000 --> 00:27:29.590
>> That's actually encouraging from an


00:27:29.600 --> 00:27:31.590
international cooperation standpoint.


00:27:31.600 --> 00:27:33.830
>> I think so, too. And it's worth noting


00:27:33.840 --> 00:27:36.230
that in 2024, the International


00:27:36.240 --> 00:27:38.950
Astronomical Union adopted a framework


00:27:38.960 --> 00:27:40.789
calling for the moon to have its own


00:27:40.799 --> 00:27:43.350
time reference. So this software really


00:27:43.360 --> 00:27:46.070
builds on that international consensus.


00:27:46.080 --> 00:27:48.149
>> What are the practical implications for


00:27:48.159 --> 00:27:49.590
upcoming missions


00:27:49.600 --> 00:27:52.789
>> as lunar activity increases and we're


00:27:52.799 --> 00:27:55.510
talking about NASA's Aremis program,


00:27:55.520 --> 00:27:58.549
China's own lunar base plans, commercial


00:27:58.559 --> 00:28:01.430
lunar landers, and more. Reliable


00:28:01.440 --> 00:28:04.549
timekeeping will support safer landings,


00:28:04.559 --> 00:28:06.630
smoother navigation, and better


00:28:06.640 --> 00:28:08.870
coordination between missions.


00:28:08.880 --> 00:28:12.070
Eventually, we'll likely see lunar GPS


00:28:12.080 --> 00:28:14.789
style systems that depend on this kind


00:28:14.799 --> 00:28:16.870
of precise timekeeping.


00:28:16.880 --> 00:28:18.549
>> It really is laying the groundwork for


00:28:18.559 --> 00:28:21.029
sustained human presence on the moon.


00:28:21.039 --> 00:28:23.269
>> Absolutely. And the researchers


00:28:23.279 --> 00:28:25.909
emphasize that LTE440


00:28:25.919 --> 00:28:28.789
is just an early step. Future versions


00:28:28.799 --> 00:28:30.789
will need to support real time


00:28:30.799 --> 00:28:34.149
navigation and networks of lunar clocks.


00:28:34.159 --> 00:28:36.389
But the release marks a shift from


00:28:36.399 --> 00:28:38.549
abstract planning to practical


00:28:38.559 --> 00:28:39.669
infrastructure.


00:28:39.679 --> 00:28:41.190
>> It's one of those things that sounds


00:28:41.200 --> 00:28:43.669
mundane time software, but is actually


00:28:43.679 --> 00:28:45.909
fundamental to making lunar operations


00:28:45.919 --> 00:28:46.710
work.


00:28:46.720 --> 00:28:49.110
>> Exactly. You can have the fanciest


00:28:49.120 --> 00:28:51.510
rockets and landers in the world, but if


00:28:51.520 --> 00:28:53.909
your spacecraft can't agree on what time


00:28:53.919 --> 00:28:56.310
it is, you're going to have problems.


00:28:56.320 --> 00:28:59.029
This is the kind of unsexy but essential


00:28:59.039 --> 00:29:01.029
infrastructure work that makes the


00:29:01.039 --> 00:29:02.710
exciting stuff possible.


00:29:02.720 --> 00:29:04.789
>> For our final story today, let's talk


00:29:04.799 --> 00:29:06.870
about the Hubble Space Telescope. After


00:29:06.880 --> 00:29:09.190
35 years in orbit, it's still delivering


00:29:09.200 --> 00:29:10.710
incredible science.


00:29:10.720 --> 00:29:13.430
>> It really is remarkable. NASA just


00:29:13.440 --> 00:29:16.149
released a new gallery of Hubble images


00:29:16.159 --> 00:29:19.110
showing protolanetary discs around young


00:29:19.120 --> 00:29:21.830
stars, essentially the birthplaces of


00:29:21.840 --> 00:29:24.710
planets. And these images beautifully


00:29:24.720 --> 00:29:26.710
illustrate one of Hubble's original


00:29:26.720 --> 00:29:29.430
mission goals, understanding how planets


00:29:29.440 --> 00:29:30.149
form.


00:29:30.159 --> 00:29:31.350
>> Can you walk us through what we're


00:29:31.360 --> 00:29:32.789
seeing in these images?


00:29:32.799 --> 00:29:34.950
>> Sure. When stars form, they're


00:29:34.960 --> 00:29:37.510
surrounded by gas and dust left over


00:29:37.520 --> 00:29:40.149
from the formation process. In the early


00:29:40.159 --> 00:29:42.630
stages, this is called a circumstellar


00:29:42.640 --> 00:29:45.110
disc. But once planets start forming in


00:29:45.120 --> 00:29:47.669
the disc, we call it a protolanetary


00:29:47.679 --> 00:29:50.310
disc. These discs are where planetary


00:29:50.320 --> 00:29:52.630
systems like our own solar system come


00:29:52.640 --> 00:29:53.350
from.


00:29:53.360 --> 00:29:55.029
>> What makes these particular images


00:29:55.039 --> 00:29:55.830
special?


00:29:55.840 --> 00:29:58.149
>> Hubble captured them using two different


00:29:58.159 --> 00:30:00.630
approaches. The visible light images


00:30:00.640 --> 00:30:03.029
taken with Hubble's advanced camera for


00:30:03.039 --> 00:30:06.389
surveys show four protolanetary discs


00:30:06.399 --> 00:30:09.029
where you can actually see polar jets of


00:30:09.039 --> 00:30:11.990
gas shooting out from the young stars.


00:30:12.000 --> 00:30:14.950
You can also see brightly lit nebula.


00:30:14.960 --> 00:30:16.950
And there's this cool effect where the


00:30:16.960 --> 00:30:19.990
dark band around each star is actually a


00:30:20.000 --> 00:30:22.710
shadow cast onto the nebula by the disc


00:30:22.720 --> 00:30:23.830
itself.


00:30:23.840 --> 00:30:26.310
>> That's wild. So, we're seeing the shadow


00:30:26.320 --> 00:30:28.549
of the planet forming disc.


00:30:28.559 --> 00:30:31.350
>> Exactly. And each of these systems has


00:30:31.360 --> 00:30:35.750
unique characteristics. One called HH390


00:30:35.760 --> 00:30:38.789
isn't quite edge on, so you only see one


00:30:38.799 --> 00:30:41.990
side of its nebulosity. Another Tao


00:30:42.000 --> 00:30:44.310
042021


00:30:44.320 --> 00:30:47.190
is seen edge on and is in a later stage


00:30:47.200 --> 00:30:49.430
of evolution where the dust grains have


00:30:49.440 --> 00:30:51.669
already clumped together into larger


00:30:51.679 --> 00:30:53.669
grains which is part of the planet


00:30:53.679 --> 00:30:55.190
formation process.


00:30:55.200 --> 00:30:58.070
>> What about that third one HH48?


00:30:58.080 --> 00:31:00.950
>> Oh, that's particularly interesting.


00:31:00.960 --> 00:31:04.789
HH48 is actually a binary protoar


00:31:04.799 --> 00:31:06.789
system. And you can see how the


00:31:06.799 --> 00:31:09.430
gravitational power from the larger star


00:31:09.440 --> 00:31:11.669
is shaping the disc around its less


00:31:11.679 --> 00:31:14.310
massive companion. It's a great example


00:31:14.320 --> 00:31:16.630
of how stellar environments affect


00:31:16.640 --> 00:31:17.990
planet formation.


00:31:18.000 --> 00:31:19.990
>> And the infrared images show something


00:31:20.000 --> 00:31:20.789
different.


00:31:20.799 --> 00:31:23.269
>> Right. The infrared images taken with


00:31:23.279 --> 00:31:26.389
Hubble's wide field camera 3 show the


00:31:26.399 --> 00:31:29.190
bright protoars despite being surrounded


00:31:29.200 --> 00:31:32.389
by dust. Dust absorbs starlight and then


00:31:32.399 --> 00:31:34.870
remits it in infrared, which allows


00:31:34.880 --> 00:31:37.750
Hubble to see the stars. The jets aren't


00:31:37.760 --> 00:31:39.990
visible in these infrared images, but


00:31:40.000 --> 00:31:42.310
you get a much better view of the stars


00:31:42.320 --> 00:31:44.710
themselves and their dusty discs.


00:31:44.720 --> 00:31:46.950
>> Where are these protolanetary discs


00:31:46.960 --> 00:31:47.990
located?


00:31:48.000 --> 00:31:50.149
>> Most of them are in well-known star


00:31:50.159 --> 00:31:52.389
forming regions. Several are in the


00:31:52.399 --> 00:31:55.190
Orion molecular cloud complex. That's


00:31:55.200 --> 00:31:57.110
one of the most active star forming


00:31:57.120 --> 00:31:59.830
regions visible from Earth located about


00:31:59.840 --> 00:32:02.870
1,500 lighty years away. Others are in


00:32:02.880 --> 00:32:04.950
the Perseus molecular cloud.


00:32:04.960 --> 00:32:07.029
>> Now, we also have the James Webb Space


00:32:07.039 --> 00:32:08.630
Telescope observing these kinds of


00:32:08.640 --> 00:32:10.870
objects. How do Hubble's observations


00:32:10.880 --> 00:32:11.830
compare?


00:32:11.840 --> 00:32:15.190
>> That's a great question. JWST has been


00:32:15.200 --> 00:32:17.669
doing incredible work on protostars and


00:32:17.679 --> 00:32:20.710
protolanetary discs, too. In fact, there


00:32:20.720 --> 00:32:23.509
was research published in 2024 based on


00:32:23.519 --> 00:32:26.549
JWST observations showing that some


00:32:26.559 --> 00:32:29.110
young protostars have layered structures


00:32:29.120 --> 00:32:31.990
of winds and jets, inner jets surrounded


00:32:32.000 --> 00:32:34.470
by outer cone-shaped jets.


00:32:34.480 --> 00:32:35.990
>> So, the two telescopes are


00:32:36.000 --> 00:32:37.350
complimentary.


00:32:37.360 --> 00:32:40.310
>> Exactly. Hubble excels in visible and


00:32:40.320 --> 00:32:43.509
some infrared wavelengths while JWST is


00:32:43.519 --> 00:32:45.830
optimized for infrared. Together, they


00:32:45.840 --> 00:32:48.230
give us a much more complete picture.


00:32:48.240 --> 00:32:50.149
For instance, Hubble can show us those


00:32:50.159 --> 00:32:52.389
beautiful jets and nebula in visible


00:32:52.399 --> 00:32:55.830
light, while JWST can peer through dust


00:32:55.840 --> 00:32:58.149
to see the nested structure of winds and


00:32:58.159 --> 00:33:01.029
jets using different chemical tracers.


00:33:01.039 --> 00:33:03.029
How much longer can we expect Hubble to


00:33:03.039 --> 00:33:04.230
keep operating?


00:33:04.240 --> 00:33:06.710
>> That's the big question. Hubble was


00:33:06.720 --> 00:33:09.509
launched in 1990 with an expected


00:33:09.519 --> 00:33:12.070
15-year lifetime, but it's now lasted


00:33:12.080 --> 00:33:14.870
more than 35 years thanks to five


00:33:14.880 --> 00:33:17.430
servicing missions. However, it is


00:33:17.440 --> 00:33:19.909
showing its age. The telescope has been


00:33:19.919 --> 00:33:22.389
losing gyroscopes, which means it takes


00:33:22.399 --> 00:33:24.710
more time to point at targets.


00:33:24.720 --> 00:33:28.070
Observations are down by about 12% with


00:33:28.080 --> 00:33:30.149
a corresponding reduction in science


00:33:30.159 --> 00:33:30.870
output.


00:33:30.880 --> 00:33:32.789
>> But it's still functioning, right?


00:33:32.799 --> 00:33:35.430
>> Oh, yes. NASA expects Hubble to keep


00:33:35.440 --> 00:33:37.990
operating into the 2030s. And there's


00:33:38.000 --> 00:33:40.310
been talk, though it's not confirmed, of


00:33:40.320 --> 00:33:42.310
a possible servicing mission that could


00:33:42.320 --> 00:33:45.029
extend its life even further. Who would


00:33:45.039 --> 00:33:47.029
conduct that servicing mission?


00:33:47.039 --> 00:33:49.350
>> That's the interesting part. NASA


00:33:49.360 --> 00:33:51.430
doesn't have the space shuttle anymore,


00:33:51.440 --> 00:33:53.110
which was used for all previous


00:33:53.120 --> 00:33:55.590
servicing missions. Any future servicing


00:33:55.600 --> 00:33:57.190
mission would likely involve a


00:33:57.200 --> 00:33:59.029
commercial spacecraft, possibly


00:33:59.039 --> 00:34:01.430
something from SpaceX or another company


00:34:01.440 --> 00:34:03.669
developing servicing capabilities.


00:34:03.679 --> 00:34:05.590
>> It would be amazing if Hubble could keep


00:34:05.600 --> 00:34:07.430
going for another decade.


00:34:07.440 --> 00:34:09.990
>> It really would. And if it does, it'll


00:34:10.000 --> 00:34:11.430
continue contributing to our


00:34:11.440 --> 00:34:13.990
understanding of star formation, planet


00:34:14.000 --> 00:34:16.389
formation, and so many other areas of


00:34:16.399 --> 00:34:19.030
astronomy. These protolanetary disc


00:34:19.040 --> 00:34:21.349
images are a perfect example of how


00:34:21.359 --> 00:34:23.589
Hubble is still answering fundamental


00:34:23.599 --> 00:34:26.149
questions about how planetary systems


00:34:26.159 --> 00:34:27.990
like ours come to be.


00:34:28.000 --> 00:34:29.669
>> When you think about it, Hubble has


00:34:29.679 --> 00:34:31.349
literally changed our view of the


00:34:31.359 --> 00:34:33.589
universe. From the Hubble deep field to


00:34:33.599 --> 00:34:35.750
these protolanetary discs, from


00:34:35.760 --> 00:34:37.430
measuring the expansion rate of the


00:34:37.440 --> 00:34:39.430
universe to studying exoplanet


00:34:39.440 --> 00:34:41.510
atmospheres, it's been an incredible


00:34:41.520 --> 00:34:42.790
horsework.


00:34:42.800 --> 00:34:45.349
>> Absolutely. And the fact that it's still


00:34:45.359 --> 00:34:47.510
delivering cuttingedge science more than


00:34:47.520 --> 00:34:49.990
30 decades after launch is a testament


00:34:50.000 --> 00:34:52.069
to the foresight of designing it to be


00:34:52.079 --> 00:34:54.869
serviceable and upgradable. It's a model


00:34:54.879 --> 00:34:56.470
for how we should think about building


00:34:56.480 --> 00:34:58.550
space-based observatories.


00:34:58.560 --> 00:35:00.390
>> Well, that wraps up today's episode of


00:35:00.400 --> 00:35:02.470
Astronomy Daily. We covered a lot of


00:35:02.480 --> 00:35:04.790
ground from the uncertain fate of NASA's


00:35:04.800 --> 00:35:07.430
Maven Orbiter to the historic ISS


00:35:07.440 --> 00:35:09.589
medical evacuation. From Europe's


00:35:09.599 --> 00:35:11.430
expanding launch capabilities to


00:35:11.440 --> 00:35:14.230
groundbreaking asteroid defense research


00:35:14.240 --> 00:35:16.470
and we learned about lunar timekeeping


00:35:16.480 --> 00:35:18.230
software that will enable the next


00:35:18.240 --> 00:35:20.790
generation of moon missions. AMP saw how


00:35:20.800 --> 00:35:22.550
Hubble continues to reveal the


00:35:22.560 --> 00:35:25.829
birthplaces of planets after 35 years in


00:35:25.839 --> 00:35:28.310
orbit. It's been quite a week in space


00:35:28.320 --> 00:35:29.990
news and we've only just scratched the


00:35:30.000 --> 00:35:30.950
surface.


00:35:30.960 --> 00:35:33.030
>> Before we go, a quick reminder that you


00:35:33.040 --> 00:35:35.109
can find more space and astronomy news


00:35:35.119 --> 00:35:38.150
at our website, astronomyaily.io.


00:35:38.160 --> 00:35:40.069
And don't forget to subscribe so you


00:35:40.079 --> 00:35:41.589
never miss an episode.


00:35:41.599 --> 00:35:43.270
>> You can also follow us on social media


00:35:43.280 --> 00:35:45.190
for bonus content and updates throughout


00:35:45.200 --> 00:35:46.150
the week.


00:35:46.160 --> 00:35:48.230
>> Thanks for joining us today, everyone.


00:35:48.240 --> 00:35:53.270
>> Clear skies and we'll see you on Monday.


00:35:53.280 --> 00:36:01.510
The stories we told


00:36:01.520 --> 00:36:09.430
stories told


00:36:09.440 --> 00:36:12.079
stories