Lunar Water Disparities Explored, Asteroid 2024 YR4’s Moonbound Journey

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Language: en

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This is Spacetime series 28, episode 45.


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Coming up on Spacetime, why does the


00:00:06.720 --> 00:00:09.030
lunar far side have less water than the


00:00:09.040 --> 00:00:13.509
near side? Asteroid 2024 YF4, which came


00:00:13.519 --> 00:00:15.509
to fame after it was designated a


00:00:15.519 --> 00:00:17.590
possible Earth impact earlier this year,


00:00:17.600 --> 00:00:20.230
now appears to be targeting the moon.


00:00:20.240 --> 00:00:22.710
And how singing stars exposed their


00:00:22.720 --> 00:00:25.509
galactic past. All that and more coming


00:00:25.519 --> 00:00:28.470
up on Spaceime.


00:00:28.480 --> 00:00:32.550
Welcome to Space Time with Stuart


00:00:32.560 --> 00:00:39.420
[Music]




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Garry. Lunar rocks collected by China's


00:00:49.520 --> 00:00:51.990
Changi 6 sample return mission suggested


00:00:52.000 --> 00:00:54.549
the moon's far side is far drier than


00:00:54.559 --> 00:00:57.189
its earth-facing side. The findings


00:00:57.199 --> 00:00:59.029
reported in the journal Nature add to


00:00:59.039 --> 00:01:01.029
the intriguing dichotomy between the


00:01:01.039 --> 00:01:03.510
moon's two faces and offer potential new


00:01:03.520 --> 00:01:06.390
insights into lunar evolution. The


00:01:06.400 --> 00:01:08.710
analysis of Mar bassalts are showing


00:01:08.720 --> 00:01:10.950
scientists the lunar farides mantle


00:01:10.960 --> 00:01:13.190
contains far less water than on the near


00:01:13.200 --> 00:01:15.670
side. Over the past two decades,


00:01:15.680 --> 00:01:17.910
extensive studies of lunar samples from


00:01:17.920 --> 00:01:19.830
nearside rocks have demonstrated a


00:01:19.840 --> 00:01:21.670
highly heterogeneous distribution of


00:01:21.680 --> 00:01:23.789
water in the moon's interior.


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Concentrations range from roughly 1 to


00:01:26.320 --> 00:01:29.270
200 micrograms per gram. But the new


00:01:29.280 --> 00:01:31.510
data from the far side indicates water


00:01:31.520 --> 00:01:34.149
concentrations there are just 1 to 1 12


00:01:34.159 --> 00:01:37.109
micrograms per gram. Notably the crust


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exposed on the surface of the procarium


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creep terrain on the lunar side as a


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higher thorium concentration than the


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other two primary lunar geochemical


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provinces. The filled sporadic highlands


00:01:47.680 --> 00:01:49.749
and the south pole eken basin on the


00:01:49.759 --> 00:01:52.310
lunar far side. The thing is both


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thorium and water are considered


00:01:54.000 --> 00:01:55.990
incompatible elements during magmatic


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processes meaning they preferentially


00:01:58.159 --> 00:02:00.230
remain in the melt rather than becoming


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incorporated into the crystallizing


00:02:02.439 --> 00:02:05.350
materials. This geochemical behavior


00:02:05.360 --> 00:02:07.190
suggested the mantle beneath the south


00:02:07.200 --> 00:02:09.430
pole akin basin may contain lower


00:02:09.440 --> 00:02:12.070
abundances of water. Now to confirm this


00:02:12.080 --> 00:02:13.990
hypothesis, the authors focused on


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analyzing water content and hydrogen


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isotopes in melt inclusions in apatite


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within the Changi 6 Maria bassalt


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samples which were the first lunar rocks


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returned from the far side. The results


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indicate that the parent magma of these


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bassaltants contain 15 to 168 micrograms


00:02:30.800 --> 00:02:33.509
per gram of water. The authors estimated


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that the mantle source of the Changi 6


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bassalts had a water content of 1 to 1.5


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microgram per gram. significantly lower


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than for the near side mantle. Now, this


00:02:43.680 --> 00:02:45.589
disparity points to a potentially


00:02:45.599 --> 00:02:47.589
hemispheric dichotomy in the moon's


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interior water distribution, and that


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mirrors many other asymmetrical features


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observed on the lunar surface. The new


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estimates of the lunar farside matter's


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water content marks a significant step


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forward in refining science's


00:03:00.400 --> 00:03:02.470
understanding of the bulk silicut lunar


00:03:02.480 --> 00:03:04.949
water content. It provides important


00:03:04.959 --> 00:03:06.390
constraints in the giant impact


00:03:06.400 --> 00:03:08.470
hypothesis of the moon's origin and


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underscores the role of water in the


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moon's long-term evolution. This is


00:03:13.200 --> 00:03:17.509
space time. Still to come, asteroid 2024


00:03:17.519 --> 00:03:20.229
YF4, which came to fame after it was


00:03:20.239 --> 00:03:22.149
designated a possible Earth impactor


00:03:22.159 --> 00:03:24.070
earlier this year, now appears to be


00:03:24.080 --> 00:03:26.309
targeting the moon, and how singing


00:03:26.319 --> 00:03:29.270
stars expose their galactic past. All


00:03:29.280 --> 00:03:36.450
that and more still to come on


00:03:36.460 --> 00:03:46.910
[Music]


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Spaceime. Asteroid 2024 YF4, which came


00:03:51.120 --> 00:03:52.949
to fame after it was designated a


00:03:52.959 --> 00:03:55.030
possible Earth impactor, now appears to


00:03:55.040 --> 00:03:57.509
be targeting the moon. The widely


00:03:57.519 --> 00:03:59.910
spinning 60 meter wide space rock was


00:03:59.920 --> 00:04:01.830
discovered back on December the 27th


00:04:01.840 --> 00:04:03.429
last year, just a few days after


00:04:03.439 --> 00:04:05.350
Christmas with early observations


00:04:05.360 --> 00:04:07.110
suggesting a possible collision with the


00:04:07.120 --> 00:04:10.789
Earth on December the 22nd, 2032. Now,


00:04:10.799 --> 00:04:12.710
of course, that was based on very early


00:04:12.720 --> 00:04:15.270
orbital data. NASA and the European


00:04:15.280 --> 00:04:17.270
Space Agency placed the odds of a direct


00:04:17.280 --> 00:04:20.310
impact with the Earth as high as 3%. And


00:04:20.320 --> 00:04:22.230
this potential threat quickly gained


00:04:22.240 --> 00:04:24.150
international attention among the public


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and media. The thing is, the figures


00:04:26.560 --> 00:04:28.710
were still based on very early tracking


00:04:28.720 --> 00:04:31.430
of the asteroid's orbit. And as more and


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more detailed observations came flooding


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in over the following weeks earlier this


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year, including studies by the European


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Southern Observatory's VT, the Very


00:04:39.360 --> 00:04:41.909
Large Telescope in Chile, those risks


00:04:41.919 --> 00:04:44.469
eventually began dropping and dropping


00:04:44.479 --> 00:04:46.390
and dropping until they eventually


00:04:46.400 --> 00:04:50.710
became negligible. Asteroid 2024 YF4 was


00:04:50.720 --> 00:04:53.430
no longer likely to hit the Earth. But


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as the risk to Earth diminished, the


00:04:55.520 --> 00:04:57.189
chances of a collision with the moon


00:04:57.199 --> 00:04:59.670
began to grow. In fact, it's now


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standing at


00:05:00.919 --> 00:05:04.070
3.5%. And that makes YF4 one of the


00:05:04.080 --> 00:05:06.150
largest objects in recent history that


00:05:06.160 --> 00:05:08.629
could impact the moon. Meanwhile, as


00:05:08.639 --> 00:05:10.390
this near-Earth asteroid continues


00:05:10.400 --> 00:05:12.230
moving away from the Earth moon system


00:05:12.240 --> 00:05:14.310
on the outward leg of its four Earthyear


00:05:14.320 --> 00:05:16.230
journey around the sun, astronomers


00:05:16.240 --> 00:05:18.150
using the Gemini South telescope in


00:05:18.160 --> 00:05:20.150
Chile examined the rock in multiple


00:05:20.160 --> 00:05:21.430
wavelengths, creating a


00:05:21.440 --> 00:05:23.430
three-dimensional image, showing that it


00:05:23.440 --> 00:05:25.830
shaped more like a flat disc, a bit like


00:05:25.840 --> 00:05:28.150
a not quite round hockey puck rather


00:05:28.160 --> 00:05:30.469
than a potato, which most asteroids look


00:05:30.479 --> 00:05:32.629
like. They also discovered that it was


00:05:32.639 --> 00:05:34.550
tumbling at a rate of around once every


00:05:34.560 --> 00:05:37.029
20 minutes. And astronomers using the


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Mosfire spectrograph on the kek


00:05:38.800 --> 00:05:40.710
observatory on Monarch in Hawaii were


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able to determine the physical


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properties and potential origins of YF4


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revealing it to be a solid stony sype


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asteroid rich in silicates that likely


00:05:49.360 --> 00:05:51.510
originated from an asteroid family in


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the main asteroid built between Mars and


00:05:53.680 --> 00:05:55.909
Jupiter. The findings have been reported


00:05:55.919 --> 00:05:58.070
in the astrophysical journal letters and


00:05:58.080 --> 00:06:00.749
on the pre-press physics website


00:06:00.759 --> 00:06:04.070
archive.org. This is spaceime. Still to


00:06:04.080 --> 00:06:06.230
come, how singing stars expose the


00:06:06.240 --> 00:06:08.870
galactic past. And later in the science


00:06:08.880 --> 00:06:10.870
report, there's been a lot in the news


00:06:10.880 --> 00:06:12.950
about the extinct dire wolf being


00:06:12.960 --> 00:06:15.270
resurrected through genetic engineering.


00:06:15.280 --> 00:06:18.150
But how true really are those claims?


00:06:18.160 --> 00:06:25.760
All that and more still to come on


00:06:25.770 --> 00:06:33.450
[Music]




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Spaceime. Astronomers studying the open


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star cluster Messia 67 have used stellar


00:06:40.960 --> 00:06:43.110
seismology to help them determine how


00:06:43.120 --> 00:06:45.029
the stars in the cluster have evolved


00:06:45.039 --> 00:06:48.070
over cosmic time. The findings reported


00:06:48.080 --> 00:06:49.830
in the journal Nature are allowing


00:06:49.840 --> 00:06:51.350
scientists to map the history of the


00:06:51.360 --> 00:06:53.189
Milky Way and other galaxies,


00:06:53.199 --> 00:06:55.710
accelerating knowledge in the field of


00:06:55.720 --> 00:06:58.710
astrophysics. Located some 2700 light


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years away, and containing some 1,080


00:07:01.440 --> 00:07:04.309
solar masses, Messier 67 is one of the


00:07:04.319 --> 00:07:06.309
best studied star clusters. Yet,


00:07:06.319 --> 00:07:08.230
estimates of its physical parameters,


00:07:08.240 --> 00:07:10.469
such as its age, its true mass, and the


00:07:10.479 --> 00:07:12.230
number of stars it contains of a given


00:07:12.240 --> 00:07:15.270
type, vary substantially. What is known


00:07:15.280 --> 00:07:17.430
is that the stars in this cluster were


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all born at the same time from the same


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molecular gas and dust cloud with the


00:07:21.919 --> 00:07:24.309
best estimate suggesting about 4 billion


00:07:24.319 --> 00:07:26.950
years ago. Now, that means any


00:07:26.960 --> 00:07:28.950
differences between individual stars in


00:07:28.960 --> 00:07:31.350
the cluster must be due primarily to


00:07:31.360 --> 00:07:33.589
their stellar mass. Now, from what


00:07:33.599 --> 00:07:36.790
astronomers can tell, M67 has around 500


00:07:36.800 --> 00:07:39.189
stars, including at least 150 white


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dwarves and more than 100 sunlike stars,


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as well as numerous red giants. These


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are revolved stars, which have moved off


00:07:46.400 --> 00:07:48.469
the main sequence. That's where stars


00:07:48.479 --> 00:07:50.230
are burning hydrogen into helium in


00:07:50.240 --> 00:07:52.790
their stellar cores. The ages and


00:07:52.800 --> 00:07:54.790
prevalence of sunlike stars in the


00:07:54.800 --> 00:07:56.629
cluster has led some astronomers to


00:07:56.639 --> 00:07:58.950
hypothesize that it's possible that this


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could be the stellar nursery of our own


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local star, the sun. However, computer


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simulations disagree on whether our


00:08:06.160 --> 00:08:07.749
solar system would have survived an


00:08:07.759 --> 00:08:10.309
ejection from M67. And the cluster


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itself would probably not have survived


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such an ejection event anyway. The


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cluster now contains no main sequence


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stars bluer than spectrotype F white


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stars. That's because any brighter stars


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of that age would have already left the


00:08:21.680 --> 00:08:24.469
main sequence. In fact, when stars in


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the cluster are plotted on the Herzbrung


00:08:26.240 --> 00:08:28.230
Russell diagram, there's a distinct


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turnoff representing the stars which


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have terminated hydrogen fusion in the


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core and are now destined to become red


00:08:33.959 --> 00:08:36.550
giants. But that's not unusual. You see,


00:08:36.560 --> 00:08:38.790
as a cluster ages, the turnoff moves


00:08:38.800 --> 00:08:40.469
progressively down the main sequence


00:08:40.479 --> 00:08:42.870
towards cooler stars. That's because


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hotter stars burn through their nuclear


00:08:44.720 --> 00:08:46.710
fusion process quicker while cooler


00:08:46.720 --> 00:08:49.030
stars like our sun tend to live much


00:08:49.040 --> 00:08:51.430
longer. The study's lead author Claudia


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Reyes from the University of New South


00:08:53.279 --> 00:08:55.990
Wales studied 27 of the stars in the


00:08:56.000 --> 00:08:57.910
cluster to better understand how stars


00:08:57.920 --> 00:08:59.509
of different masses but similar


00:08:59.519 --> 00:09:02.070
compositions have evolved differently.


00:09:02.080 --> 00:09:04.150
Reyes says while these stars are all the


00:09:04.160 --> 00:09:06.310
same age, it's their mass which gives


00:09:06.320 --> 00:09:08.870
away how quickly they've evolved. The


00:09:08.880 --> 00:09:11.030
study also opens new ways to learn more


00:09:11.040 --> 00:09:13.030
about what the sun will do as it gets


00:09:13.040 --> 00:09:15.190
bigger and older. The thing is,


00:09:15.200 --> 00:09:17.190
verifying the age of a star is one of


00:09:17.200 --> 00:09:18.590
the most difficult things you can do in


00:09:18.600 --> 00:09:20.710
astronomy. That's because the age of a


00:09:20.720 --> 00:09:23.509
star isn't revealed by its surface. It's


00:09:23.519 --> 00:09:25.590
what happens inside that shows


00:09:25.600 --> 00:09:28.790
astronomers how old a star really is.


00:09:28.800 --> 00:09:30.630
Reyes and colleagues were able to


00:09:30.640 --> 00:09:32.870
precisely determine a star's age based


00:09:32.880 --> 00:09:35.030
on its oscillation frequencies.


00:09:35.040 --> 00:09:37.430
basically how the star vibrates, how it


00:09:37.440 --> 00:09:39.590
rings and that depends on the physical


00:09:39.600 --> 00:09:41.350
properties of the matter inside the


00:09:41.360 --> 00:09:44.150
star. It gives clues about stellar


00:09:44.160 --> 00:09:47.350
density, temperature and age. This is


00:09:47.360 --> 00:09:49.030
the first time researchers were able to


00:09:49.040 --> 00:09:50.870
interrogate the ringing across a cluster


00:09:50.880 --> 00:09:52.790
of stars in order to learn more about


00:09:52.800 --> 00:09:55.829
their internal structure. To do this,


00:09:55.839 --> 00:09:58.470
they use data from the Kepler K2 mission


00:09:58.480 --> 00:10:01.509
as a primary way to observe or listen.


00:10:01.519 --> 00:10:03.509
Reyes says the process is a bit like


00:10:03.519 --> 00:10:04.949
listening to an orchestra and


00:10:04.959 --> 00:10:06.630
identifying instruments based on their


00:10:06.640 --> 00:10:08.870
sound. The frequency by which an


00:10:08.880 --> 00:10:10.710
instrument's vibrating or ringing


00:10:10.720 --> 00:10:12.310
depends on the physical properties of


00:10:12.320 --> 00:10:13.990
the matter that the sound's traveling


00:10:14.000 --> 00:10:16.310
through. That's why a violin doesn't


00:10:16.320 --> 00:10:18.630
sound like a grand piano. And it's the


00:10:18.640 --> 00:10:21.350
same for stars. And we can see that


00:10:21.360 --> 00:10:23.110
vibration or the effects of that


00:10:23.120 --> 00:10:25.350
vibration. That is the sound just like


00:10:25.360 --> 00:10:27.670
you can see the vibration of a violin


00:10:27.680 --> 00:10:29.750
string. The biggest stars have the


00:10:29.760 --> 00:10:32.230
deepest sounds, while smaller stars have


00:10:32.240 --> 00:10:34.470
more high-pitch tones. But of course,


00:10:34.480 --> 00:10:37.350
it's not that simple. No one star plays


00:10:37.360 --> 00:10:40.150
just one note at once. Each star has a


00:10:40.160 --> 00:10:41.750
complete symphony of sounds coming from


00:10:41.760 --> 00:10:44.630
its interior. And these sounds exist as


00:10:44.640 --> 00:10:46.949
waves of energy, a vibration moving


00:10:46.959 --> 00:10:48.630
through particles, solid, liquid, or


00:10:48.640 --> 00:10:51.590
gas. Reyes says each star is like a


00:10:51.600 --> 00:10:53.829
breathing ball of gas, cooling down and


00:10:53.839 --> 00:10:55.910
heating up, causing slight changes in


00:10:55.920 --> 00:10:58.069
its brightness. And it's these


00:10:58.079 --> 00:11:00.230
fluctuations in brightness that Reyes


00:11:00.240 --> 00:11:01.990
and colleagues were watching for and


00:11:02.000 --> 00:11:03.990
then measuring in order to gauge the


00:11:04.000 --> 00:11:06.870
sound frequencies. As stars in the main


00:11:06.880 --> 00:11:09.190
sequence mature towards the red giant


00:11:09.200 --> 00:11:11.430
phase, their frequencies change and they


00:11:11.440 --> 00:11:13.750
behave differently and these changes can


00:11:13.760 --> 00:11:15.910
help track their evolution. The


00:11:15.920 --> 00:11:17.590
frequency differences between the many


00:11:17.600 --> 00:11:19.990
modes played by the star can give clues


00:11:20.000 --> 00:11:22.710
about its interior properties. And by


00:11:22.720 --> 00:11:25.430
studying 27 stars in the M67 open


00:11:25.440 --> 00:11:27.269
cluster, the authors could for the first


00:11:27.279 --> 00:11:29.509
time observe the relationship between


00:11:29.519 --> 00:11:31.750
small and large frequency differences in


00:11:31.760 --> 00:11:34.069
giant stars. And that can now be applied


00:11:34.079 --> 00:11:37.190
to individual stars. You see, to better


00:11:37.200 --> 00:11:38.949
understand the formation and evolution


00:11:38.959 --> 00:11:41.030
of galaxies, scientists need to know the


00:11:41.040 --> 00:11:43.030
ages of all its components, including


00:11:43.040 --> 00:11:45.670
the stars. Reyes says the study will


00:11:45.680 --> 00:11:47.430
lead to an accurate identification of


00:11:47.440 --> 00:11:49.350
the mass and age of stars in the Milky


00:11:49.360 --> 00:11:51.590
Way. Something yet to be achieved. We


00:11:51.600 --> 00:11:54.630
have found that the seismology of stars


00:11:54.640 --> 00:11:56.790
can give a different tool to get the


00:11:56.800 --> 00:12:00.630
ages and it is way way more precise than


00:12:00.640 --> 00:12:03.030
traditional method. So what we do is we


00:12:03.040 --> 00:12:06.230
use the oscillations of stars that have


00:12:06.240 --> 00:12:09.269
convective envelopes to measure the


00:12:09.279 --> 00:12:11.670
frequencies at which they resonate and


00:12:11.680 --> 00:12:13.990
we then compare those frequencies with


00:12:14.000 --> 00:12:15.910
the models that we have and we can


00:12:15.920 --> 00:12:19.430
estimate very good masses and age. We


00:12:19.440 --> 00:12:23.110
know in the file diagram where the stars


00:12:23.120 --> 00:12:25.590
that have convective envelopes lie. So


00:12:25.600 --> 00:12:28.230
our sun is a very good example of that


00:12:28.240 --> 00:12:31.750
but also most of the giant stars. So we


00:12:31.760 --> 00:12:34.949
target those and we observe the very


00:12:34.959 --> 00:12:37.750
small variations in their brightness and


00:12:37.760 --> 00:12:41.110
then we observe them for a long time as


00:12:41.120 --> 00:12:43.350
long as possible but we are limited of


00:12:43.360 --> 00:12:45.750
course by telescope capacities but then


00:12:45.760 --> 00:12:48.470
those we take those light curves and we


00:12:48.480 --> 00:12:50.949
transform them into the frequency space


00:12:50.959 --> 00:12:53.269
and that's what the oscillations that we


00:12:53.279 --> 00:12:55.190
measure come from and you use that to


00:12:55.200 --> 00:12:56.870
calculate stellar age stellar


00:12:56.880 --> 00:12:58.470
revolution. That's right. Because we


00:12:58.480 --> 00:13:01.190
have very good models and our models


00:13:01.200 --> 00:13:03.750
actually can predict very accurately


00:13:03.760 --> 00:13:06.550
where every one of those frequency peaks


00:13:06.560 --> 00:13:09.030
will lie in a frequency spectrum. Why


00:13:09.040 --> 00:13:12.230
did you choose M67? M67 is a very


00:13:12.240 --> 00:13:15.030
special cluster for a number of reasons.


00:13:15.040 --> 00:13:18.150
One of them is that it has very similar


00:13:18.160 --> 00:13:20.870
to solar composition which very good


00:13:20.880 --> 00:13:23.910
because our models are best calibrated


00:13:23.920 --> 00:13:26.230
to the sun normally. So another good


00:13:26.240 --> 00:13:29.750
reason is that it is not very obscure by


00:13:29.760 --> 00:13:32.150
D. We have a good look at them at those


00:13:32.160 --> 00:13:35.750
stars. And another good reason is that


00:13:35.760 --> 00:13:38.470
is very well populated. So from the main


00:13:38.480 --> 00:13:41.590
sequence to from lower evolutionary


00:13:41.600 --> 00:13:44.870
phases until the later evolutionary


00:13:44.880 --> 00:13:47.190
phases we have an amazing sample of


00:13:47.200 --> 00:13:49.350
stars that we can observe very clearly.


00:13:49.360 --> 00:13:50.870
You knew they all formed in the same


00:13:50.880 --> 00:13:53.030
molecular dust cloud. So they had a


00:13:53.040 --> 00:13:54.629
similar composition. you knew they


00:13:54.639 --> 00:13:56.710
started out at roughly the same time, so


00:13:56.720 --> 00:13:59.350
they're the same age. And by looking at


00:13:59.360 --> 00:14:01.990
how stars of different masses evolved,


00:14:02.000 --> 00:14:04.310
you were able to fine-tune your your


00:14:04.320 --> 00:14:06.550
hypothesis. Exactly. Because we know


00:14:06.560 --> 00:14:08.790
that the difference between two of them


00:14:08.800 --> 00:14:11.189
is mostly related to the mass that they


00:14:11.199 --> 00:14:13.910
started with. So it's not related to any


00:14:13.920 --> 00:14:16.470
other factor like chemical composition


00:14:16.480 --> 00:14:19.189
or distance or dust or anything like


00:14:19.199 --> 00:14:22.150
that. So yes, we can observe the entire


00:14:22.160 --> 00:14:25.590
sequence of frequencies and basically


00:14:25.600 --> 00:14:28.389
it's the next best thing as to just


00:14:28.399 --> 00:14:30.710
following a star for billions of years


00:14:30.720 --> 00:14:32.790
and seeing how it evolves. Of course we


00:14:32.800 --> 00:14:35.030
cannot do that but we can look at this


00:14:35.040 --> 00:14:37.110
very nice thickness of stars and this


00:14:37.120 --> 00:14:38.230
will allow you to get a better


00:14:38.240 --> 00:14:40.710
understanding of our sun as well. Yes.


00:14:40.720 --> 00:14:43.670
So the stars that we particularly target


00:14:43.680 --> 00:14:46.550
in this study are stars that are more


00:14:46.560 --> 00:14:48.870
evolved than the sun which is like


00:14:48.880 --> 00:14:51.829
looking into our sun's future. So what


00:14:51.839 --> 00:14:54.389
we learned from this study one of the


00:14:54.399 --> 00:14:56.790
things that we learned is that we have


00:14:56.800 --> 00:15:00.230
evidence of how deep that convective


00:15:00.240 --> 00:15:03.189
envelope with will actually reach. So we


00:15:03.199 --> 00:15:05.910
have predicted this and we have indirect


00:15:05.920 --> 00:15:09.269
methods of getting this information of


00:15:09.279 --> 00:15:11.750
how deep the envelope actually reaches.


00:15:11.760 --> 00:15:15.430
But now we have very direct indication


00:15:15.440 --> 00:15:19.110
of the depth of that envelope and it is


00:15:19.120 --> 00:15:21.269
what will happen to the sun. Is our


00:15:21.279 --> 00:15:23.189
schedule of the sun accurate at this


00:15:23.199 --> 00:15:26.470
stage? So what does including our sun


00:15:26.480 --> 00:15:29.670
when they run out of hydrogen in it core


00:15:29.680 --> 00:15:32.310
they begin to puff up. So as the core


00:15:32.320 --> 00:15:35.829
will become even more dense, its outer


00:15:35.839 --> 00:15:38.949
layers will become more expanded and yes


00:15:38.959 --> 00:15:41.750
they will reach where the the radius


00:15:41.760 --> 00:15:44.230
where the earth is located. But it is


00:15:44.240 --> 00:15:46.310
still so so far in the future but a lot


00:15:46.320 --> 00:15:48.470
sooner than that as the sun continues to


00:15:48.480 --> 00:15:50.550
heat up a lot sooner than that the earth


00:15:50.560 --> 00:15:52.629
will become uninhabitable anyway. Um


00:15:52.639 --> 00:15:53.829
well at least that's that's the


00:15:53.839 --> 00:15:56.150
hypothesis that I was taught. Yeah. Well


00:15:56.160 --> 00:15:59.910
before the earth is engulfed by the sun.


00:15:59.920 --> 00:16:02.470
Yes. It will become uninhabitable but


00:16:02.480 --> 00:16:05.189
the sun has a good billion of years in


00:16:05.199 --> 00:16:07.590
its current state. So nothing will


00:16:07.600 --> 00:16:10.230
happen for a long time. Star quakes tell


00:16:10.240 --> 00:16:12.710
me about them. So star quakes are very


00:16:12.720 --> 00:16:15.110
similar to earthquakes that we are


00:16:15.120 --> 00:16:16.949
familiar with just that they happen in


00:16:16.959 --> 00:16:20.470
stars but the cause of the quakes are


00:16:20.480 --> 00:16:22.310
different. So for example in the earth


00:16:22.320 --> 00:16:25.189
we are familiar with the tectonic plates


00:16:25.199 --> 00:16:27.110
running into each other. That is what


00:16:27.120 --> 00:16:29.829
causes these earthquakes. In stars they


00:16:29.839 --> 00:16:33.910
have this bubbling outer layer of gas.


00:16:33.920 --> 00:16:35.829
It's like water boiling in a pot. I


00:16:35.839 --> 00:16:38.230
think so. Yeah. So what happens is that


00:16:38.240 --> 00:16:40.710
convective envelopes need to transport


00:16:40.720 --> 00:16:43.990
energy from the core to the surface very


00:16:44.000 --> 00:16:46.629
efficiently so that stars can keep from


00:16:46.639 --> 00:16:48.949
collapsing. Right? So these bubbles when


00:16:48.959 --> 00:16:52.230
they reach the surface they burst and by


00:16:52.240 --> 00:16:54.629
bursting they send ripples through the


00:16:54.639 --> 00:16:57.670
entire star and that is what causes the


00:16:57.680 --> 00:17:00.550
star wicks and I think it's really


00:17:00.560 --> 00:17:03.269
fascinating that we have we can learn so


00:17:03.279 --> 00:17:05.909
much from that and does magnetism play


00:17:05.919 --> 00:17:08.150
an important role in this because we


00:17:08.160 --> 00:17:09.510
know that things like coronal mass


00:17:09.520 --> 00:17:11.829
ejections and stellar flares are


00:17:11.839 --> 00:17:14.309
triggered by magnetic ropes that are


00:17:14.319 --> 00:17:16.710
being twisted as the star rotates at


00:17:16.720 --> 00:17:18.390
different rates. Does that play a role


00:17:18.400 --> 00:17:20.309
in this or is that independent from


00:17:20.319 --> 00:17:22.949
perculations of plasma that lead to star


00:17:22.959 --> 00:17:26.470
quakes? Yeah. So a study of magnetism


00:17:26.480 --> 00:17:30.070
using seismology is a very active and


00:17:30.080 --> 00:17:32.390
one thing that it does that is really


00:17:32.400 --> 00:17:35.830
interesting is that the magnetism in the


00:17:35.840 --> 00:17:37.909
core of a star can actually suppress


00:17:37.919 --> 00:17:40.230
that oscillations and leave us with a


00:17:40.240 --> 00:17:43.270
partial power spectrum. So that is one


00:17:43.280 --> 00:17:45.510
one of the areas where magnetism can be


00:17:45.520 --> 00:17:47.909
observed in a source moon. And where


00:17:47.919 --> 00:17:49.669
would you like to take this research to


00:17:49.679 --> 00:17:52.549
next? It's very interesting because this


00:17:52.559 --> 00:17:55.510
research other than let us know a lot of


00:17:55.520 --> 00:17:58.310
what is going on underneath the outer


00:17:58.320 --> 00:18:00.950
layers of the stars as it is one of the


00:18:00.960 --> 00:18:03.510
main outcomes of this study was to find


00:18:03.520 --> 00:18:06.630
out specifically when the outer layer


00:18:06.640 --> 00:18:10.470
reaches this greater depth. So the other


00:18:10.480 --> 00:18:13.990
outcome of this study is that we can get


00:18:14.000 --> 00:18:17.430
even more precise ages for a particular


00:18:17.440 --> 00:18:20.150
subset of stars everywhere in the galaxy


00:18:20.160 --> 00:18:23.990
not only in the cluster M67. So next for


00:18:24.000 --> 00:18:26.549
us is to look for stars in this


00:18:26.559 --> 00:18:28.830
particular phases everywhere in the


00:18:28.840 --> 00:18:32.470
gate. So we can then use that data for


00:18:32.480 --> 00:18:34.630
galactic archology which is the search


00:18:34.640 --> 00:18:37.510
for reconstructing the history of the


00:18:37.520 --> 00:18:40.070
galaxy. That's Claudia Reyes from the


00:18:40.080 --> 00:18:43.270
University of New South Wales and this


00:18:43.280 --> 00:18:44.210
is


00:18:44.220 --> 00:18:59.070
[Music]


00:18:59.080 --> 00:19:01.430
Spacetime. And time now to take a brief


00:19:01.440 --> 00:19:02.870
look at some of the other stories making


00:19:02.880 --> 00:19:04.870
news in science this week with a science


00:19:04.880 --> 00:19:07.430
report. Two new studies have linked


00:19:07.440 --> 00:19:09.430
diabetes drugs such as ampic, which


00:19:09.440 --> 00:19:11.669
lowers blood glucose, showing it may


00:19:11.679 --> 00:19:13.950
also lower the risk of Alzheimer's and


00:19:13.960 --> 00:19:16.310
dementia. A report in the Journal of the


00:19:16.320 --> 00:19:18.470
American Medical Association found that


00:19:18.480 --> 00:19:20.070
one study looked at Alzheimer's


00:19:20.080 --> 00:19:22.549
diagnosis in patients taking a class of


00:19:22.559 --> 00:19:24.789
drugs that includes glucagenike peptide


00:19:24.799 --> 00:19:29.029
1 receptor agonists GLP1 RAS and another


00:19:29.039 --> 00:19:32.750
class of glucoseing drugs known as


00:19:32.760 --> 00:19:35.350
SGT2is. They found that patients taking


00:19:35.360 --> 00:19:37.350
the newer drugs had lower rates of


00:19:37.360 --> 00:19:40.070
Alzheimer's disease and other dementias.


00:19:40.080 --> 00:19:41.669
Meanwhile, the second study pulled


00:19:41.679 --> 00:19:43.110
together the results of previous


00:19:43.120 --> 00:19:47.789
clinical trials, finding that GLP1


00:19:47.799 --> 00:19:50.310
ragt2is were associated with a reduction


00:19:50.320 --> 00:19:54.070
in dementia or cognitive impairment.


00:19:54.080 --> 00:19:55.990
The company behind efforts to resurrect


00:19:56.000 --> 00:19:57.990
the woolly mammoth, the thyloine, and


00:19:58.000 --> 00:20:00.310
the dodo now claim they've achieved what


00:20:00.320 --> 00:20:02.230
they're describing as the deextinction


00:20:02.240 --> 00:20:04.470
of the dire wolf. It's a species that


00:20:04.480 --> 00:20:07.270
went extinct about 10,000 years ago.


00:20:07.280 --> 00:20:09.669
Colossal biosciences claim it's produced


00:20:09.679 --> 00:20:11.669
three very cute little puppies named


00:20:11.679 --> 00:20:14.070
Romulus, Remis, and Kalesi based on


00:20:14.080 --> 00:20:17.190
genetically engineered greywolf genomes.


00:20:17.200 --> 00:20:19.110
However, according to Professor Philip


00:20:19.120 --> 00:20:21.110
Seden from the University of Vitago,


00:20:21.120 --> 00:20:23.110
greywolves and direwolves, despite the


00:20:23.120 --> 00:20:25.190
wolf part in their names, aren't closely


00:20:25.200 --> 00:20:27.110
related, having parted ways from a


00:20:27.120 --> 00:20:29.029
common ancestor some 6 million years


00:20:29.039 --> 00:20:31.350
ago. In fact, he says the African


00:20:31.360 --> 00:20:33.350
jackals probably more closely related to


00:20:33.360 --> 00:20:34.430
real


00:20:34.440 --> 00:20:36.470
direwolves. The company simply


00:20:36.480 --> 00:20:38.470
introduced a series of genetic changes


00:20:38.480 --> 00:20:40.950
to a grey wolf to produce greywolf pups


00:20:40.960 --> 00:20:43.350
with direwolf features, such as paler


00:20:43.360 --> 00:20:45.510
coats and potentially a slightly larger


00:20:45.520 --> 00:20:47.510
size.


00:20:47.520 --> 00:20:49.909
A new study shows that farmers had been


00:20:49.919 --> 00:20:52.070
transporting fish up into the Pyrenees


00:20:52.080 --> 00:20:53.830
mountains between modern day Spain and


00:20:53.840 --> 00:20:56.149
France into local Pyrenees waterways and


00:20:56.159 --> 00:20:59.270
lakes as early as the 7th century. A


00:20:59.280 --> 00:21:00.549
report of the journal Nature


00:21:00.559 --> 00:21:02.549
Communications found the lakes in the


00:21:02.559 --> 00:21:04.230
highest mountains of Europe didn't


00:21:04.240 --> 00:21:06.789
originally have fish, but evidence of


00:21:06.799 --> 00:21:08.789
people introducing them to these areas


00:21:08.799 --> 00:21:10.870
has been found dating from the 14th and


00:21:10.880 --> 00:21:13.510
15th centuries. The author studied a


00:21:13.520 --> 00:21:15.669
sedimentary core in Lake Rudon in the


00:21:15.679 --> 00:21:18.149
Spanish Pyrenees, finding data from fish


00:21:18.159 --> 00:21:20.549
parasites and fish prey dating back to


00:21:20.559 --> 00:21:22.870
the early 7th century, a time when the


00:21:22.880 --> 00:21:24.510
region was likely used for sheep


00:21:24.520 --> 00:21:26.710
farming. And that suggests that fish


00:21:26.720 --> 00:21:28.070
must have been brought there earlier


00:21:28.080 --> 00:21:30.230
than previously thought. Of course,


00:21:30.240 --> 00:21:32.870
today this lake is home to about 60,000


00:21:32.880 --> 00:21:35.110
brown trout, descendants of those


00:21:35.120 --> 00:21:37.669
original fish transported up by early


00:21:37.679 --> 00:21:39.830
farmers.


00:21:39.840 --> 00:21:41.190
There's a growing spread of


00:21:41.200 --> 00:21:42.950
misinformation online about the


00:21:42.960 --> 00:21:44.750
nutritional value of various


00:21:44.760 --> 00:21:46.950
supplements, but Tim Menum from


00:21:46.960 --> 00:21:48.789
Australian Skeptics says it's possible


00:21:48.799 --> 00:21:50.390
to protect yourself and tell the


00:21:50.400 --> 00:21:51.909
difference between what's good advice


00:21:51.919 --> 00:21:54.390
and what's not if you follow some simple


00:21:54.400 --> 00:21:56.630
rules. Nutrition, especially online


00:21:56.640 --> 00:21:58.390
recommendations for nutrition, you go


00:21:58.400 --> 00:21:59.830
through your Tik Toks and all that sort


00:21:59.840 --> 00:22:02.390
of stuff, is fraught with bad


00:22:02.400 --> 00:22:04.390
information, bad advice from people who


00:22:04.400 --> 00:22:05.510
really don't know what they're talking


00:22:05.520 --> 00:22:08.149
about. and wellness influencers are the


00:22:08.159 --> 00:22:09.909
people who often up there use this


00:22:09.919 --> 00:22:11.110
product and you know stick your mouth


00:22:11.120 --> 00:22:13.029
full of cinnamon or whatever or take the


00:22:13.039 --> 00:22:14.710
big one was apple cider vinegar which


00:22:14.720 --> 00:22:16.870
will cure anything going apparently all


00:22:16.880 --> 00:22:18.390
these things are recommended you go


00:22:18.400 --> 00:22:20.549
online you see these things everywhere


00:22:20.559 --> 00:22:22.470
this will guarantee the cure you of this


00:22:22.480 --> 00:22:23.669
particular problem I remember when


00:22:23.679 --> 00:22:25.510
echynatia was a big thing everyone had


00:22:25.520 --> 00:22:27.590
to take echania yeah I mean echynatia


00:22:27.600 --> 00:22:29.510
was a is that a homeopathic treatment it


00:22:29.520 --> 00:22:31.430
was a herbal treatment supposedly cure


00:22:31.440 --> 00:22:33.990
you for cold the fish oil it was largely


00:22:34.000 --> 00:22:35.990
overstated about sort what what it could


00:22:36.000 --> 00:22:37.190
actually do for you. And there also


00:22:37.200 --> 00:22:39.110
concerns about its quality and how old


00:22:39.120 --> 00:22:40.710
it is and how well it quality is


00:22:40.720 --> 00:22:42.470
especially a problem that you don't know


00:22:42.480 --> 00:22:44.549
how it's made and how true it is. I


00:22:44.559 --> 00:22:46.230
mean, despite what it says on the label,


00:22:46.240 --> 00:22:47.830
that's not necessarily a guarantee,


00:22:47.840 --> 00:22:50.070
especially if it's taken as a food


00:22:50.080 --> 00:22:51.990
supplement, not as a medicine thing,


00:22:52.000 --> 00:22:53.430
because the medicine things are more


00:22:53.440 --> 00:22:55.750
closely reviewed. Hopefully, the food


00:22:55.760 --> 00:22:57.510
things are less closely reviewed, except


00:22:57.520 --> 00:22:59.190
if they're poison, right? There's a big


00:22:59.200 --> 00:23:01.190
overlap there between what's a good diet


00:23:01.200 --> 00:23:03.110
or a nutritional product rather than a


00:23:03.120 --> 00:23:04.710
medical product. And that's part of the


00:23:04.720 --> 00:23:06.549
problem is is that in many cases the


00:23:06.559 --> 00:23:08.310
nutritional product is regarded as food


00:23:08.320 --> 00:23:09.830
and that's a different authority to the


00:23:09.840 --> 00:23:11.990
medical regulatory bodies. So what you


00:23:12.000 --> 00:23:14.149
have is that with nutrition anyone can


00:23:14.159 --> 00:23:15.590
get actually that happens with medicine


00:23:15.600 --> 00:23:17.669
as well. So people get online they go a


00:23:17.679 --> 00:23:20.149
Tik Tok a 3minut video about yeah use


00:23:20.159 --> 00:23:21.909
this thing it's worked for me and I got


00:23:21.919 --> 00:23:23.669
this great body etc. And you too can


00:23:23.679 --> 00:23:25.270
have this if you take this product. I


00:23:25.280 --> 00:23:26.789
had a great body once but I had to give


00:23:26.799 --> 00:23:29.350
it back. Yeah. Okay back to our story.


00:23:29.360 --> 00:23:30.870
So the thing about a lot of this stuff


00:23:30.880 --> 00:23:32.470
is that obviously you got to take it


00:23:32.480 --> 00:23:33.909
with a grain of salt. That's


00:23:33.919 --> 00:23:36.549
metaphorical. But the global dietary


00:23:36.559 --> 00:23:38.789
supplement industry is not some little


00:23:38.799 --> 00:23:41.590
thing. It's worth globally about 150


00:23:41.600 --> 00:23:44.310
billion US. So people talk about big


00:23:44.320 --> 00:23:46.149
farmer etc. Well, they should talk about


00:23:46.159 --> 00:23:49.190
big supplement or big homeopathy or big


00:23:49.200 --> 00:23:51.830
nutrition etc. This is a giant industry


00:23:51.840 --> 00:23:53.590
made up of lots of little different


00:23:53.600 --> 00:23:55.350
things and some of them major, some of


00:23:55.360 --> 00:23:57.270
them tiny, some of them promoted by one


00:23:57.280 --> 00:23:59.669
person on Tik Tok, others promoted by


00:23:59.679 --> 00:24:01.750
organizations that we hope would know


00:24:01.760 --> 00:24:03.990
better. But how do you tell? That's hard


00:24:04.000 --> 00:24:05.190
actually because a lot of these people


00:24:05.200 --> 00:24:06.470
are very convincing. They got


00:24:06.480 --> 00:24:08.310
confidence. They will use anecdotal


00:24:08.320 --> 00:24:09.830
evidence which is not worth very much.


00:24:09.840 --> 00:24:12.390
And a lot of them doctors, train medical


00:24:12.400 --> 00:24:14.950
practitioners to spru their claims. Yes.


00:24:14.960 --> 00:24:17.269
Unfortunately, there you'll always find


00:24:17.279 --> 00:24:19.669
some qualified person to promote any


00:24:19.679 --> 00:24:21.190
particular pseudocience, pseudo


00:24:21.200 --> 00:24:22.789
medicine. Yeah, the things to do. First


00:24:22.799 --> 00:24:24.470
of all, check your reasoning for trying


00:24:24.480 --> 00:24:26.630
to follow this. Is it fear? Is it anger?


00:24:26.640 --> 00:24:28.710
Why are you paying any attention to this


00:24:28.720 --> 00:24:29.990
at all? That's a bit of a hard one to


00:24:30.000 --> 00:24:31.909
do. Uh next, check who's saying it. Do


00:24:31.919 --> 00:24:33.430
they have qualifications? Do they know


00:24:33.440 --> 00:24:34.390
what they're talking about? Are they


00:24:34.400 --> 00:24:36.549
lying? But then if you say you can get a


00:24:36.559 --> 00:24:38.310
medical doctor to endorse something


00:24:38.320 --> 00:24:39.990
anywhere and then try and find some


00:24:40.000 --> 00:24:41.830
critical reviews of this thing. My


00:24:41.840 --> 00:24:44.149
advice I found in my experience is that


00:24:44.159 --> 00:24:45.909
if you say for instance apple cider


00:24:45.919 --> 00:24:48.149
vinegar, Google in apple cider vinegar


00:24:48.159 --> 00:24:49.990
skeptic, right? You add the word skeptic


00:24:50.000 --> 00:24:52.230
and you will find alternative views. So


00:24:52.240 --> 00:24:53.830
check your motivation, check the


00:24:53.840 --> 00:24:55.909
authority and check the facts and you


00:24:55.919 --> 00:24:57.669
will find you discover a lot of weird


00:24:57.679 --> 00:24:59.830
things. That's Tim Mendum from


00:24:59.840 --> 00:25:02.730
Australian Skeptics.


00:25:02.740 --> 00:25:11.470
[Music]




00:25:16.559 --> 00:25:19.590
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