Eris Rocket Launch Delays, Venus’s Tectonic Secrets, and Scotland’s Billion-Year-Old Impact

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Language: en

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This is Spacetime series 28 episode 60


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for broadcast on the 19th of May


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2025. Coming up on Spaceime, Gilmore


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Spac's Aerys orbital rocket launch


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delayed, the discovery of possible


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tectonic activity on Venus and a


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billion-year-old asteroid impact in


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Scotland sparks fresh questions about


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life on Earth. All that and more coming


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up on Spaceime.


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Welcome to Space Time with Stuart


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[Music]




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Garry. Gilmore Space has scrubbed the


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maiden launch of its Aerys rocket by


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several weeks following a series of


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technical issues. The test flight, which


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was to take place last Thursday, was


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initially postponed for a day following


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the discovery on Wednesday of a ground


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systems glitch with an external power


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supply on the launchpad. The company


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spokesperson, communication chief


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Michelle Gilmore, says the issue was


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detected during pre-flight systems


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checks. She says the cause was


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identified, but mission managers ran out


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of time to implement the fix and fuel


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the rocket in time to meet the Thursday


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morning launch window. that forced the


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scrub and the plan's second launch


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attempt the following morning. But then


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on Thursday evening, an unexpected issue


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during final testing triggered the


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system that jettisonens the launch


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vehicle's nose cone fairings, which then


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fell to the ground. Company CEO Adam


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Gilmore says no one was injured in the


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incident, and initial checks have found


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no damage to either the rocket or the


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launchpad. A replacement set of nose


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cone fairings are now being transported


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to the Bow and Launch facility on the


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northern Queensland coast from the


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company's Gold Coast factory. Gilmore


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says a full investigation into the cause


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of the unexpected deployments now


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underway and that could take up to 2


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weeks, meaning the next launch attempt


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is at least 3 weeks away. The 23 m tall


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three-stage AIS rocket is designed to


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launch small satellite payloads up to


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200 kg into low Earth orbit. But the


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maiden flight's only payload will be a


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jar of the popular Australian toast


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spread vegite. The 30tonon Aerys launch


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vehicle uses a unique hybrid propulsion


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system comprising a solid inert fuel and


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a liquid oxidizer to provide oxygen for


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the burn. Gilmore says the company hopes


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to start commercial launches late next


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year or early in


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2027. Needless to say, we'll keep you


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informed. This is spaceime.


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Still to come, the discovery of possible


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tectonic activity on the planet Venus


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and the billion-year-old asteroid impact


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in Scotland that spark new questions


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about life on Earth. All that and more


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still to come on Spaceime.


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[Music]




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A new study claims that mysterious giant


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quasy circular features on the surface


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of the planet Venus may be evidence of a


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new type of tectonic activity not found


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on Earth. The findings reported in the


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journal Science Advances are based on


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archival data from NASA's Mellan mission


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which launched to map Venus back in


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1989. The authors say this ongoing


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tectonic activity may still be deforming


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the planet's surface


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today. On Earth, the planet's surface is


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continually being renewed by the


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constant shifting and recycling of


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massive sections of crust known as


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tectonic plates. These float on top of a


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partly molten convecting viscous mantle.


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Venus doesn't have tectonic plates to


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allow heat from deep inside the planet


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to escape, but its surface is still


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being deformed by molten material from


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below. Seeking to better understand the


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underlying processes driving these


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defamations, scientists studied a type


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of feature seen on Venus and not seen on


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Earth known as corona. Ranging in size


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from dozens to hundreds of kilometers


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across, a corona is most often thought


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to be the location where a plume of hot


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buoyant material from the planet's deep


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mantle is rising up and pushing against


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the lithosphere above. The lithosphere


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includes the planet's crust and the


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uppermost part of its mantle. These


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corona structures are usually oval with


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a concentric fracture system surrounding


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them and hundreds of corona are known to


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exist on Venus. The new study details


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recently discovered signs of activity


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either at or beneath the surface which


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is shaping many of Venus's corona


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features that may not only provide a


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unique window into Venus but also the


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Earth's past. You see, Venus is often


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described as Earth's sister planet.


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They're both about the same age and


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size. They were both formed at the same


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time in the same part of the solar


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system and out of the same materials


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under similar conditions. But whereas


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Earth was able to evolve into an oasis


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where life could exist, Venus developed


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a runaway greenhouse effect. It has


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surface temperatures of over 460° C.


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That's hot enough to melt lead.


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Atmospheric pressures on Venus are 100


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times higher than what they are on


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Earth. And the atmosphere is a thick


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poisonous carbon dioxide mixture pushed


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down under a thick planetwide cloud


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cover that acts as a pressure cooker.


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And those clouds rain sulfuric acid onto


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the ground. Now, there is what looks


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like snow on Venusian mountaintops. But


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that snow isn't ice. It's metallic.


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Venus rotates slowly backwards compared


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to most other planets in the solar


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system with the sun rising in the west


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and setting in the east. And at 245


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Earth days, a Venian day is 20 Earth


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days longer than a Venetian year. The


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study's authors found their evidence for


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Venus's weird tectonic activity within


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data gathered by NASA's Mellan mission,


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which orbited Venus during the 1990s and


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gathered the most detailed gravity and


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topography data on the planet available.


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The study's lead author, Gal Casioli


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from the University of Maryland and


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NASA's Godard Space Flight Center in


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Green Belt, Maryland, says Karna are not


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found on Earth today. However, they may


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have existed on our planet when it was a


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lot younger, a time before plate


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tectonics became established here. She


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says by combining gravity and topography


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data, this research has provided a new


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insight into the possible subsurface


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processes which are currently shaping


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the surface of Venus. As members of


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NASA's upcoming Venus Veritas mission,


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Ciolian colleagues are especially


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interested in the highresolution gravity


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data the spacecraft will provide. Mellin


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used its radar system to see through


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Venus's thick cloud cover, mapping the


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topography of its mountains and plains.


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And of the multitude of fascinating


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geological features the spacecraft


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mapped, corona were perhaps the most


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enigmatic. Back then, it wasn't clear


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how they formed. In the years since,


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however, scientists have found many


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crona in locations where the planet's


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lithosphere is especially thin and heat


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flow is high. Over the years, people


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have proposed different hypotheses to


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try and explain how they formed. The


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authors of this study developed a


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sophisticated three-dimensional


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geodnamic model to demonstrate various


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formation scenarios for plume induced


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crona and they then compared them with


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the combined gravity topography data


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from Melon. And the gravity data proved


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crucial in helping detect less dense hot


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and buoyant plumes under the surface.


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Information that couldn't be discerned


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from topography data alone. Of the 75


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cron studied, 52 appear to have buoyant


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mantal material beneath them that's


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likely driving tectonic processes. One


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key process is subduction. On Earth, it


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happens when the edge of one tectonic


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plate is driven beneath an adjacent


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plate. Friction between the plates can


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generate earthquakes. And as the old


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rocky material from one plate dives back


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down into the hot mantle, that rock


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melts and is then recycled back to the


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surface through volcanic vents. But on


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Venus, a different type of subduction is


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thought to occur around the perimeter of


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some Corona. In this scenario, as a


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buoyant plume of hot rock in the mantle


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pushes upwards into the lithosphere,


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surface material rises and spreads


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outwards, colliding with surrounding


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surface material and pushing that


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material back down into the mantle.


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Another tectonic process known as


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lithospheric dripping could also be


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present. This involves dense


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accumulations of comparatively cool


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material which sinks from the


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lithosphere down into the hotter mantle.


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The authors also identified several


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places where a third process could be


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taking place where a plume of hot mantle


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rock beneath a thicker part of the


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lithosphere is potentially driving the


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volcanism above it. The research marks


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the most recent instance of scientists


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returning to Mellan data to find that


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Venus exhibits geological processes that


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are more earthlike than originally


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thought. Recently, scientists were able


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to spot erupting volcanoes on Venus,


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including vast lava flows that vented


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from Matt Mons, Cifmons, and Steio in


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radar images from the orbiter. While


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those images provided direct evidence of


00:09:11.360 --> 00:09:13.350
volcanic action on Venus, the authors of


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this new study will need sharper


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resolution in order to draw a more


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complete picture about the tectonic


00:09:18.560 --> 00:09:21.430
processes driving corona formation. And


00:09:21.440 --> 00:09:23.750
the Veritas gravity maps of Venus will


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boost that resolution by at least a


00:09:25.760 --> 00:09:27.790
factor of two to four depending on the


00:09:27.800 --> 00:09:30.389
location. That's a level of detail which


00:09:30.399 --> 00:09:31.910
could revolutionize science's


00:09:31.920 --> 00:09:34.150
understanding of Venus's geology and the


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implications it has for early Earth.


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This is spacetime. Still to come, the


00:09:41.360 --> 00:09:43.190
billion-year-old asteroid impact in


00:09:43.200 --> 00:09:45.030
Scotland which has sparked new questions


00:09:45.040 --> 00:09:47.269
about life on Earth. And later in the


00:09:47.279 --> 00:09:49.990
science report, discovery of unexplained


00:09:50.000 --> 00:09:52.550
communications equipment in Chinese-made


00:09:52.560 --> 00:09:55.190
power inverters used in solar panels and


00:09:55.200 --> 00:09:57.350
wind turbines. All that and more still


00:09:57.360 --> 00:10:01.840
to come on Spaceime.


00:10:01.850 --> 00:10:14.790
[Music]


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Scientists dating a massive asteroid


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impact zone in northwestern Scotland


00:10:18.880 --> 00:10:20.550
have discovered that it actually struck


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the Earth some 200 million years later


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than what was originally thought. The


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discovery reported in the journal


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Geology not only rewrite Scotland's


00:10:28.480 --> 00:10:30.630
geological history, but also alters


00:10:30.640 --> 00:10:32.630
science's understanding of the evolution


00:10:32.640 --> 00:10:35.190
of life on Earth. Previously believed to


00:10:35.200 --> 00:10:37.350
have occurred 1.2 Two billion years ago,


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the impact created the stack fat member,


00:10:39.519 --> 00:10:41.590
a layer of rock that holds vital clues


00:10:41.600 --> 00:10:43.750
about Earth's ancient past, including


00:10:43.760 --> 00:10:46.230
how meteor and asteroid impacts may have


00:10:46.240 --> 00:10:48.069
influenced the planet's environment and


00:10:48.079 --> 00:10:50.310
life. The study's lead author Chris


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Kirkland from Curtain University says


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the key lay in tiny zirkon crystals


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which acted as geological clocks.


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Kirkland and colleagues were able to


00:10:59.120 --> 00:11:01.990
more accurately date the impact to 990


00:11:02.000 --> 00:11:04.310
million years ago. He says these


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microscopic zirkon crystals recorded the


00:11:07.040 --> 00:11:09.350
exact moment of impact with some even


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transforming into an incredibly rare


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mineral called reedite which only forms


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under extreme pressures. Kirkland says


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it provides undeniable proof that a


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meteor strike did cause the stack far to


00:11:20.399 --> 00:11:22.790
deposit. See when a meteor hits the


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surface it potentially resets the atomic


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clocks inside the ziron crystals. And


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these broken time pieces are often


00:11:29.519 --> 00:11:31.910
unable to be dated. But Kirtland and


00:11:31.920 --> 00:11:33.350
colleagues developed a new model to


00:11:33.360 --> 00:11:34.790
reconstruct when the disturbance


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occurred, confirming the impact was 990


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million years ago. And this revised


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impact date occurred at around the same


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time some of the earliest freshwater


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ukariots began to appear on land.


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Ukariats are the ancient ancestors of


00:11:49.680 --> 00:11:52.470
today's plants, animals, and fungi. And


00:11:52.480 --> 00:11:54.550
so it's raising fascinating questions


00:11:54.560 --> 00:11:56.310
about whether large impacts may have


00:11:56.320 --> 00:11:57.990
influenced environmental conditions on


00:11:58.000 --> 00:12:00.430
Earth in ways that affected early


00:12:00.440 --> 00:12:02.710
ecosystems. See, understanding when


00:12:02.720 --> 00:12:04.790
meteor impacts occur helps scientists


00:12:04.800 --> 00:12:06.470
explore the potential influence on


00:12:06.480 --> 00:12:08.710
Earth's environment and the expansion of


00:12:08.720 --> 00:12:11.269
life beyond the oceans. Kirkland says


00:12:11.279 --> 00:12:13.269
while the impact crater itself is yet to


00:12:13.279 --> 00:12:14.949
be found, this study has collected


00:12:14.959 --> 00:12:17.110
further clues that could finally reveal


00:12:17.120 --> 00:12:18.949
its location. We don't know where the


00:12:18.959 --> 00:12:20.629
crater itself is, but we've got these


00:12:20.639 --> 00:12:23.030
fantastic sequence of rocks that tell us


00:12:23.040 --> 00:12:24.069
about the impact, but we don't know


00:12:24.079 --> 00:12:25.590
where the exact crater itself is.


00:12:25.600 --> 00:12:27.430
There's this classic sequence of geology


00:12:27.440 --> 00:12:29.829
in Scotland known as the Toridan, and it


00:12:29.839 --> 00:12:31.910
has this unit called the Spack Fat,


00:12:31.920 --> 00:12:33.750
which is an impact deposit, and it


00:12:33.760 --> 00:12:35.590
contain shots minerals. So, we


00:12:35.600 --> 00:12:37.190
definitely know it's formed by a big


00:12:37.200 --> 00:12:38.790
impact. Unfortunately, we don't know


00:12:38.800 --> 00:12:40.949
where the crater is yet. But the


00:12:40.959 --> 00:12:42.790
sequence of rocks is really interesting


00:12:42.800 --> 00:12:45.110
because it contains early ukarotes. So


00:12:45.120 --> 00:12:47.590
those are early fossils of land life.


00:12:47.600 --> 00:12:49.350
Some of the first evidence of life on


00:12:49.360 --> 00:12:51.030
the land out of the ocean. These are


00:12:51.040 --> 00:12:53.030
cells that have got individual parts to


00:12:53.040 --> 00:12:54.550
them. Yeah, that's absolutely right. So


00:12:54.560 --> 00:12:55.990
what they look like in the rock record


00:12:56.000 --> 00:12:57.910
are these kind of crusty surfaces within


00:12:57.920 --> 00:12:59.269
the rock. So they're quite distinctive


00:12:59.279 --> 00:13:00.710
and they've been recognized for a long


00:13:00.720 --> 00:13:03.190
time. And because the impact is in the


00:13:03.200 --> 00:13:04.710
sequence that contains these fossils.


00:13:04.720 --> 00:13:06.790
The impact has been used as a marker bed


00:13:06.800 --> 00:13:09.190
to define the age of these fossils. But


00:13:09.200 --> 00:13:11.269
by um using some new techniques here at


00:13:11.279 --> 00:13:13.269
Curtain, we've redated the impact


00:13:13.279 --> 00:13:15.829
deposit and shifted its age by uh 200


00:13:15.839 --> 00:13:17.509
million years. So it's a it's a billion


00:13:17.519 --> 00:13:19.750
year old impact now. And that really


00:13:19.760 --> 00:13:22.310
helps us understand Scottish geology a


00:13:22.320 --> 00:13:23.910
lot better, but also understand the


00:13:23.920 --> 00:13:26.150
relationship potentially um how this


00:13:26.160 --> 00:13:28.790
ancient ecosystem responded to a large


00:13:28.800 --> 00:13:30.389
impact event and then and the


00:13:30.399 --> 00:13:31.910
development of these fossils. Is this


00:13:31.920 --> 00:13:34.230
telling us that this impact may have


00:13:34.240 --> 00:13:36.230
allowed the acceleration of the spread


00:13:36.240 --> 00:13:38.550
of ukarots because these are the uh life


00:13:38.560 --> 00:13:40.949
forms that eventually led to animals and


00:13:40.959 --> 00:13:42.790
plants and fungi. Yeah, that's exactly


00:13:42.800 --> 00:13:45.269
right. Yeah, you know, we do find right


00:13:45.279 --> 00:13:47.509
underneath where the impact deposit is,


00:13:47.519 --> 00:13:49.350
there is some early kind of traces of


00:13:49.360 --> 00:13:52.710
ukarotes. Um but after the impact


00:13:52.720 --> 00:13:54.750
deposit, we find more evidence of these


00:13:54.760 --> 00:13:57.670
ukarotes. Um, the reason this sequence


00:13:57.680 --> 00:13:59.590
of rocks is so interesting is it's some


00:13:59.600 --> 00:14:02.069
of the oldest unmet metamorphosed, so


00:14:02.079 --> 00:14:05.110
uncooked rocks of this age that contain


00:14:05.120 --> 00:14:07.590
these fossils on the planet. And the


00:14:07.600 --> 00:14:09.670
other interesting um thing about these


00:14:09.680 --> 00:14:11.750
rocks is they're an old sequence of


00:14:11.760 --> 00:14:13.670
rivers and lakes. So this impact came


00:14:13.680 --> 00:14:15.750
into this ecosystem, brought a lot of


00:14:15.760 --> 00:14:17.829
energy with it, fractured the rock, set


00:14:17.839 --> 00:14:19.990
up a whole load of chemical reactions,


00:14:20.000 --> 00:14:21.590
and then we've got this lovely record of


00:14:21.600 --> 00:14:23.269
it preserved in Scotland of all those


00:14:23.279 --> 00:14:25.269
processes happening. Without an impact


00:14:25.279 --> 00:14:27.189
crater, how do you know that what you're


00:14:27.199 --> 00:14:29.269
seeing was caused by a meteor impact?


00:14:29.279 --> 00:14:31.509
Yeah, that's a great question. So by


00:14:31.519 --> 00:14:33.430
looking carefully at the rocks and the


00:14:33.440 --> 00:14:35.750
minerals they contain. So the sequence


00:14:35.760 --> 00:14:37.990
of rocks within it contains some


00:14:38.000 --> 00:14:39.750
diagnostic minerals within the


00:14:39.760 --> 00:14:41.670
geologist's favorite mineral zirkon. So,


00:14:41.680 --> 00:14:43.430
we love zirkon because we can date it.


00:14:43.440 --> 00:14:44.790
And we'll get to how we do that in a


00:14:44.800 --> 00:14:46.389
minute. But the crystals themselves have


00:14:46.399 --> 00:14:48.629
been fractured and broken and


00:14:48.639 --> 00:14:50.470
crystallize this new mineral called


00:14:50.480 --> 00:14:52.150
reite. And the only way you can really


00:14:52.160 --> 00:14:54.629
form reite is under extreme pressure


00:14:54.639 --> 00:14:56.710
wave. So, it's pretty diagnostic of


00:14:56.720 --> 00:14:58.710
having an extreme impact event. Both


00:14:58.720 --> 00:15:00.470
raising the temperature and


00:15:00.480 --> 00:15:02.870
recristallizing the existing material


00:15:02.880 --> 00:15:05.110
that's there, but also developing these


00:15:05.120 --> 00:15:07.030
shock features within the crystal. And


00:15:07.040 --> 00:15:08.790
it's those individual little shock


00:15:08.800 --> 00:15:11.189
features that we can date by using an


00:15:11.199 --> 00:15:13.750
ion beam beam of oxygen ions and picking


00:15:13.760 --> 00:15:15.509
out these individual little features


00:15:15.519 --> 00:15:17.189
that are um you know smaller than the


00:15:17.199 --> 00:15:18.790
width of a human hair. And those are the


00:15:18.800 --> 00:15:20.470
individual features we can do it which


00:15:20.480 --> 00:15:22.629
allows us to kind of refine the age and


00:15:22.639 --> 00:15:24.790
hone right in on this 1 billiony old


00:15:24.800 --> 00:15:26.790
impact. Zirkons have been wonderful for


00:15:26.800 --> 00:15:28.949
geologists and astronomers and planetary


00:15:28.959 --> 00:15:31.189
scientists because of how accurately


00:15:31.199 --> 00:15:33.750
they're able to date events. What is it


00:15:33.760 --> 00:15:35.430
about these zirkon crystals that make


00:15:35.440 --> 00:15:37.350
them such good timekeepers? Yeah, so


00:15:37.360 --> 00:15:40.069
it's a fantastic mineral. So zirkon when


00:15:40.079 --> 00:15:42.550
it grows, it likes to incorporate a


00:15:42.560 --> 00:15:45.269
little bit of uranium and uranium over


00:15:45.279 --> 00:15:47.189
time changes to lead. So if we measure


00:15:47.199 --> 00:15:49.189
the ratio of uranium to lead, that means


00:15:49.199 --> 00:15:51.189
we've got this inbuilt stopwatch because


00:15:51.199 --> 00:15:53.030
we know the conversion rate. Um the


00:15:53.040 --> 00:15:54.790
other important point is when the


00:15:54.800 --> 00:15:57.110
crystal grows, it doesn't like to


00:15:57.120 --> 00:15:59.350
incorporate any lead to begin with. So


00:15:59.360 --> 00:16:02.069
that means any lead that's present today


00:16:02.079 --> 00:16:04.069
has come from the decay of uranium. So


00:16:04.079 --> 00:16:06.470
that gives us our stopwatch, our clock.


00:16:06.480 --> 00:16:10.069
So if our zirkon gets modified, reset,


00:16:10.079 --> 00:16:12.470
redrone during the impact event, that


00:16:12.480 --> 00:16:14.230
then allows us to make this direct


00:16:14.240 --> 00:16:16.629
connection between a mineral timekeeper


00:16:16.639 --> 00:16:18.870
and a mineral stopwatch and that actual


00:16:18.880 --> 00:16:20.230
process that caused the shock


00:16:20.240 --> 00:16:21.910
metamorphis and the shock deformation.


00:16:21.920 --> 00:16:23.430
And then we can link the two things. And


00:16:23.440 --> 00:16:25.990
I take it zirkon's not easy to destroy


00:16:26.000 --> 00:16:27.910
geologically. So, it's got to be a


00:16:27.920 --> 00:16:29.910
really high pressure, high temperature


00:16:29.920 --> 00:16:31.430
event to do that. Yeah, that's right.


00:16:31.440 --> 00:16:33.269
It's one of these wonderful minerals.


00:16:33.279 --> 00:16:34.870
You know, we can go to the outback of


00:16:34.880 --> 00:16:36.470
Australia and look right back into the


00:16:36.480 --> 00:16:38.069
deep time history of our planet using


00:16:38.079 --> 00:16:39.910
the exact same crystal. These zirkon


00:16:39.920 --> 00:16:41.670
crystals extend all the way back to tell


00:16:41.680 --> 00:16:43.509
us about the form formative history of


00:16:43.519 --> 00:16:45.670
our planet. But they also under extreme


00:16:45.680 --> 00:16:47.829
events do change and do get modified.


00:16:47.839 --> 00:16:49.590
And those extreme events such as impact


00:16:49.600 --> 00:16:51.350
we can date as well. So, we can date the


00:16:51.360 --> 00:16:52.949
formation of the grain, but we can also


00:16:52.959 --> 00:16:54.790
get extreme disturbance to the grain and


00:16:54.800 --> 00:16:56.470
that's what makes it so useful. the fact


00:16:56.480 --> 00:16:58.230
that you haven't found the impact crater


00:16:58.240 --> 00:16:59.910
yet. What's that telling you? Yeah, I


00:16:59.920 --> 00:17:01.110
think I think it's telling us something.


00:17:01.120 --> 00:17:02.389
I think it's probably telling us that if


00:17:02.399 --> 00:17:03.670
we want to find the crater, we might


00:17:03.680 --> 00:17:05.990
need to get our scuba gear on and go off


00:17:06.000 --> 00:17:08.150
into the North Atlantic and look


00:17:08.160 --> 00:17:11.429
underwater. Um, it isn't in the exposed


00:17:11.439 --> 00:17:13.909
crust of Scotland as we know it today.


00:17:13.919 --> 00:17:15.590
It's probably somewhere offshore. And


00:17:15.600 --> 00:17:17.350
there's been various suggestions about


00:17:17.360 --> 00:17:19.669
somewhere in the water off to the west


00:17:19.679 --> 00:17:21.909
of the Toridan, which is this beautiful


00:17:21.919 --> 00:17:23.990
area. It's kind of a fantastic area to


00:17:24.000 --> 00:17:25.350
go hill walking in. So, it's a real


00:17:25.360 --> 00:17:26.789
pleasure to go there and do field work.


00:17:26.799 --> 00:17:28.710
How do you actually determine the zirkon


00:17:28.720 --> 00:17:30.950
crystals age? I'm not talking about the


00:17:30.960 --> 00:17:32.710
uranium to lead ratios. I'm talking


00:17:32.720 --> 00:17:34.950
about the equipment used to to achieve


00:17:34.960 --> 00:17:36.549
that. It starts off going in the field


00:17:36.559 --> 00:17:39.270
and finding rocks and their relationship


00:17:39.280 --> 00:17:41.110
through the geography and taking a


00:17:41.120 --> 00:17:42.390
sample of rock and bringing it back to


00:17:42.400 --> 00:17:43.830
the lab. And then that's when the the


00:17:43.840 --> 00:17:45.430
hard work really begins. So, you got


00:17:45.440 --> 00:17:46.630
your piece of rock and you need to get


00:17:46.640 --> 00:17:48.230
your individual mineral grains out of


00:17:48.240 --> 00:17:49.669
it. So, how do you do that? The


00:17:49.679 --> 00:17:51.270
traditional way was to basically put


00:17:51.280 --> 00:17:53.190
your rock in a big vice and crush it and


00:17:53.200 --> 00:17:55.350
split out the grains. That doesn't work


00:17:55.360 --> 00:17:58.310
too well for our um impact deformed


00:17:58.320 --> 00:17:59.590
zircon because we want to be a little


00:17:59.600 --> 00:18:01.430
bit more delicate with it. So um we've


00:18:01.440 --> 00:18:02.870
got this technique where we basically


00:18:02.880 --> 00:18:05.590
fire a lightning bolt at the rock and it


00:18:05.600 --> 00:18:07.510
kind of breaks it along grain boundary.


00:18:07.520 --> 00:18:09.190
So you've got this rock and then you you


00:18:09.200 --> 00:18:10.710
push a button and it basically lightning


00:18:10.720 --> 00:18:13.110
bolt hits the rock and it turns to sand


00:18:13.120 --> 00:18:14.549
essentially. Then you take that sand and


00:18:14.559 --> 00:18:16.230
you put it into a heavy liquid. So in


00:18:16.240 --> 00:18:17.909
the heavy liquid, the dense minerals


00:18:17.919 --> 00:18:20.150
will um sink and the lighter minerals


00:18:20.160 --> 00:18:21.669
will float. And that then gives us the


00:18:21.679 --> 00:18:23.590
ability to individually pick using a


00:18:23.600 --> 00:18:25.590
pair of tweezers the um the grains out.


00:18:25.600 --> 00:18:26.710
So you make sure you haven't drunk


00:18:26.720 --> 00:18:28.549
coffee for several weeks beforehand and


00:18:28.559 --> 00:18:29.990
you're sitting with a microscope and a


00:18:30.000 --> 00:18:31.430
pair of tweezers picking out these


00:18:31.440 --> 00:18:33.430
individual grains probably up to about


00:18:33.440 --> 00:18:35.430
200 microns in length. um you put them


00:18:35.440 --> 00:18:37.350
into epoxy resin and then you polish the


00:18:37.360 --> 00:18:39.190
epoxy resin and that gives us like a


00:18:39.200 --> 00:18:40.630
cross-section through the grain and they


00:18:40.640 --> 00:18:42.470
have these beautiful internal textures


00:18:42.480 --> 00:18:44.150
like tree rings and those are the


00:18:44.160 --> 00:18:45.909
textures that we can look at to


00:18:45.919 --> 00:18:48.150
determine their growth process and then


00:18:48.160 --> 00:18:50.390
we fire our ion beams and our laser


00:18:50.400 --> 00:18:52.230
beams at the polished surface of these


00:18:52.240 --> 00:18:53.590
individual little crystals. So that


00:18:53.600 --> 00:18:54.870
that's the full technique. It's a


00:18:54.880 --> 00:18:57.270
painstaking effort. It is. But um it's


00:18:57.280 --> 00:18:59.430
so powerful because you know this this


00:18:59.440 --> 00:19:00.950
same technique is the same technique we


00:19:00.960 --> 00:19:03.029
use to understand the age of or deposit.


00:19:03.039 --> 00:19:04.870
It's the same technique that we use to


00:19:04.880 --> 00:19:07.990
understand the generation of large


00:19:08.000 --> 00:19:10.070
volumes of continental crust. It's the


00:19:10.080 --> 00:19:12.310
same technique we use to date


00:19:12.320 --> 00:19:14.789
archaeological artifacts. So, it's got a


00:19:14.799 --> 00:19:16.549
whole range of different uses. And


00:19:16.559 --> 00:19:18.150
really, by linking these individual


00:19:18.160 --> 00:19:20.549
textures within the grains to geological


00:19:20.559 --> 00:19:22.950
process, we can link it into the bigger


00:19:22.960 --> 00:19:24.750
scientific picture of


00:19:24.760 --> 00:19:27.669
processes related to meteorite impacts


00:19:27.679 --> 00:19:29.750
and the well potentially even the


00:19:29.760 --> 00:19:32.230
evolution of of life. So it's um it's


00:19:32.240 --> 00:19:33.669
very powerful tool. Where does this


00:19:33.679 --> 00:19:36.470
research go now? So I think a really


00:19:36.480 --> 00:19:38.390
interesting thing that we've seen


00:19:38.400 --> 00:19:40.230
recently, you know, we've dated a number


00:19:40.240 --> 00:19:41.830
of different impact deposits. We've


00:19:41.840 --> 00:19:43.830
dated some of the oldest impact deposits


00:19:43.840 --> 00:19:45.909
in the Pilbur here in Western Australia


00:19:45.919 --> 00:19:47.990
where we stretching all the way back to


00:19:48.000 --> 00:19:50.150
about 3.5 billion years old. And now


00:19:50.160 --> 00:19:51.750
we're looking at a much younger impact


00:19:51.760 --> 00:19:53.350
in Scotland at 1 billion years. They


00:19:53.360 --> 00:19:56.230
seem to be related to big changes in


00:19:56.240 --> 00:19:58.230
Earth's evolution, not only the


00:19:58.240 --> 00:20:00.310
biosphere, but also the atmosphere and


00:20:00.320 --> 00:20:02.390
changing big climatic conditions as


00:20:02.400 --> 00:20:04.549
well. What would be interesting is to


00:20:04.559 --> 00:20:07.510
get much more accurate ages on craters


00:20:07.520 --> 00:20:09.669
from around Earth, maybe even on the


00:20:09.679 --> 00:20:11.830
moon and see if there's a periodicity or


00:20:11.840 --> 00:20:14.390
a pattern to the frequency of when


00:20:14.400 --> 00:20:16.710
impacts occur. I think that's important


00:20:16.720 --> 00:20:18.470
because it provides a means of linking


00:20:18.480 --> 00:20:20.870
geology to astrophysic. Um, so we then


00:20:20.880 --> 00:20:22.150
would have a mechanism of, you know,


00:20:22.160 --> 00:20:24.070
linking these two sciences that look at


00:20:24.080 --> 00:20:25.909
things on very different scales and kind


00:20:25.919 --> 00:20:27.350
of joining them together and getting a


00:20:27.360 --> 00:20:29.270
better holistic understanding of of our


00:20:29.280 --> 00:20:30.950
planet, but also our planet's place


00:20:30.960 --> 00:20:33.270
within the Milky Way itself. Have you


00:20:33.280 --> 00:20:35.669
found any bits of the meteorite? Uh, no.


00:20:35.679 --> 00:20:37.430
No, we haven't. The closest we've


00:20:37.440 --> 00:20:40.149
basically got a shock deformed zircon


00:20:40.159 --> 00:20:42.149
grains that link us back to that high


00:20:42.159 --> 00:20:43.909
pressure shock wave and that extreme


00:20:43.919 --> 00:20:45.830
that extreme temperature. Um, the


00:20:45.840 --> 00:20:47.669
reality with most impactors is they're


00:20:47.679 --> 00:20:49.510
completely vaporized. So the amount of


00:20:49.520 --> 00:20:51.430
material remaining from them is so


00:20:51.440 --> 00:20:53.430
small. It makes it really challenging to


00:20:53.440 --> 00:20:55.270
find that. If you get lucky, you might


00:20:55.280 --> 00:20:57.110
find a chemical signature, but it's it's


00:20:57.120 --> 00:20:59.029
very challenging to do that. You say you


00:20:59.039 --> 00:21:01.350
were able to work out whether ukariots


00:21:01.360 --> 00:21:03.750
were were you able to see individual you


00:21:03.760 --> 00:21:05.190
well not individual you were able to see


00:21:05.200 --> 00:21:08.390
individual mats of ukariots. Yeah. Yeah.


00:21:08.400 --> 00:21:10.870
And um we haven't but there has been


00:21:10.880 --> 00:21:12.549
other paleontologists who have actually


00:21:12.559 --> 00:21:14.390
you know done a lot of detailed work and


00:21:14.400 --> 00:21:15.909
gone all the way down to the individual


00:21:15.919 --> 00:21:17.830
cell level. just being in the field, you


00:21:17.840 --> 00:21:19.669
could actually see these these mats. So,


00:21:19.679 --> 00:21:21.510
as a someone who likes doing field


00:21:21.520 --> 00:21:23.270
geology and looking at rocks, um yeah,


00:21:23.280 --> 00:21:24.789
you can see the stuff in the field, but


00:21:24.799 --> 00:21:26.630
when you get back to the laboratory, you


00:21:26.640 --> 00:21:28.149
know, that's when you can really start


00:21:28.159 --> 00:21:29.669
taking it apart. And that's the


00:21:29.679 --> 00:21:31.669
beautiful thing with geology and using


00:21:31.679 --> 00:21:33.669
geocchemistry with that. You can link


00:21:33.679 --> 00:21:35.750
observations on a whole range of scales,


00:21:35.760 --> 00:21:37.350
right? from, you know, the chemical and


00:21:37.360 --> 00:21:39.669
isotopic side down to the elemental


00:21:39.679 --> 00:21:41.510
scale all the way up through to the


00:21:41.520 --> 00:21:43.430
crystal scale, the size of an impact,


00:21:43.440 --> 00:21:45.430
but also then it's really nice to think


00:21:45.440 --> 00:21:47.430
about the big picture like thinking


00:21:47.440 --> 00:21:49.430
about impact events and if they're


00:21:49.440 --> 00:21:51.029
periodic and that takes us back to, you


00:21:51.039 --> 00:21:52.470
know, the size of the Milky Way and the


00:21:52.480 --> 00:21:55.270
solar system. That's what I like. That's


00:21:55.280 --> 00:21:57.630
Professor Chris Kirkland from Curtain


00:21:57.640 --> 00:22:02.860
University and this is Spacetime.


00:22:02.870 --> 00:22:16.230
[Music]


00:22:16.240 --> 00:22:17.990
And time now to take a brief look at


00:22:18.000 --> 00:22:19.590
some of the other stories making news in


00:22:19.600 --> 00:22:22.710
science this week with a science report.


00:22:22.720 --> 00:22:24.310
American energy officials have


00:22:24.320 --> 00:22:26.149
discovered unexplained communications


00:22:26.159 --> 00:22:28.710
equipment inside Chinese-made solar


00:22:28.720 --> 00:22:31.430
panel and wind turbine power converters.


00:22:31.440 --> 00:22:33.669
The undocumented communications devices


00:22:33.679 --> 00:22:35.750
were also found in Chinese inverters


00:22:35.760 --> 00:22:37.669
used for batteries, for heat pumps,


00:22:37.679 --> 00:22:39.750
cellular radios, and even electric


00:22:39.760 --> 00:22:42.230
vehicle charges. Now, while inverters


00:22:42.240 --> 00:22:44.310
are built with communications devices to


00:22:44.320 --> 00:22:46.149
allow remote access for updates and


00:22:46.159 --> 00:22:47.830
maintenance, power companies usually


00:22:47.840 --> 00:22:49.750
install firewalls to prevent direct


00:22:49.760 --> 00:22:52.630
communications back to China. China


00:22:52.640 --> 00:22:55.110
dominates the world renewables market


00:22:55.120 --> 00:22:57.190
and the rogue communications devices


00:22:57.200 --> 00:22:58.710
which are not listed in the product


00:22:58.720 --> 00:23:00.789
documents could be used to bypass


00:23:00.799 --> 00:23:02.789
firewalls and change the settings of an


00:23:02.799 --> 00:23:04.549
inverter remotely. It could switch


00:23:04.559 --> 00:23:07.270
inverters off to destabilize power grids


00:23:07.280 --> 00:23:09.590
and even damage energy infrastructure


00:23:09.600 --> 00:23:12.149
triggering widespread blackouts. An


00:23:12.159 --> 00:23:13.990
ability that would be very useful for


00:23:14.000 --> 00:23:17.029
Beijing in time of war. The Chinese


00:23:17.039 --> 00:23:18.470
company Huawei, which is one of the


00:23:18.480 --> 00:23:20.310
world's largest suppliers of inverters,


00:23:20.320 --> 00:23:22.149
has already been banned from supplying


00:23:22.159 --> 00:23:23.750
equipment to Australia's national


00:23:23.760 --> 00:23:25.830
broadband network. And the United States


00:23:25.840 --> 00:23:28.070
has restricted Huawei's access to US


00:23:28.080 --> 00:23:30.549
technology, including its 5G network,


00:23:30.559 --> 00:23:32.230
accusing the company of activities


00:23:32.240 --> 00:23:34.510
contrary to national


00:23:34.520 --> 00:23:36.710
security. Scientists have for the first


00:23:36.720 --> 00:23:38.430
time found the genes linked to


00:23:38.440 --> 00:23:41.669
obsessivempulsive disorder, OCD. The


00:23:41.679 --> 00:23:43.590
findings reported in the journal Nature


00:23:43.600 --> 00:23:46.070
Genetics identified 30 regions on the


00:23:46.080 --> 00:23:47.830
human genome which are associated with


00:23:47.840 --> 00:23:49.270
this debilitating yet often


00:23:49.280 --> 00:23:51.750
misunderstood mental health condition.


00:23:51.760 --> 00:23:54.149
The research involved more than 50,000


00:23:54.159 --> 00:23:56.710
people with OCD and 2 million people who


00:23:56.720 --> 00:23:58.630
didn't have the condition. The authors


00:23:58.640 --> 00:24:00.950
were able to pinpoint approximately 250


00:24:00.960 --> 00:24:03.350
genes which all played a role linked to


00:24:03.360 --> 00:24:05.669
OCD.


00:24:05.679 --> 00:24:07.590
A new study has found that the origin of


00:24:07.600 --> 00:24:10.070
reptiles may be up to 40 million years


00:24:10.080 --> 00:24:12.630
earlier than previously thought. The


00:24:12.640 --> 00:24:14.630
findings reported in the journal Nature


00:24:14.640 --> 00:24:16.870
are based on fossilized tracks uncovered


00:24:16.880 --> 00:24:19.269
at an Australian fossil site. The


00:24:19.279 --> 00:24:21.110
footprints belong to an amnia with


00:24:21.120 --> 00:24:23.110
clawed feet, most probably a reptile


00:24:23.120 --> 00:24:25.430
dating back around 350 million years


00:24:25.440 --> 00:24:27.510
ago.


00:24:27.520 --> 00:24:29.430
A scientist in Canada with an interest


00:24:29.440 --> 00:24:31.350
in the supernatural claims to have


00:24:31.360 --> 00:24:33.669
uncovered parts of the brain that act as


00:24:33.679 --> 00:24:36.070
some sort of psychic inhibitor which he


00:24:36.080 --> 00:24:38.390
claims suppresses a person's natural


00:24:38.400 --> 00:24:40.510
psychic telepathic and clairvoyant


00:24:40.520 --> 00:24:43.110
abilities. But Tim Menum from Australian


00:24:43.120 --> 00:24:45.830
Skeptics says this amazing discovery if


00:24:45.840 --> 00:24:48.310
true has so far failed to find any


00:24:48.320 --> 00:24:50.230
support in the wider scientific


00:24:50.240 --> 00:24:52.310
community. It's a story by researchers


00:24:52.320 --> 00:24:54.549
in New Toronto who are looking into a


00:24:54.559 --> 00:24:56.149
suggestion that something in the frontal


00:24:56.159 --> 00:24:58.630
lobe actually blocks intuitive thinking


00:24:58.640 --> 00:25:00.310
and that if they zap it through


00:25:00.320 --> 00:25:02.630
something called repetitive transcranial


00:25:02.640 --> 00:25:04.950
magnetic stimulation it will unblock the


00:25:04.960 --> 00:25:06.789
blocker. it will sort of stop the block


00:25:06.799 --> 00:25:08.070
of doing its job and therefore people


00:25:08.080 --> 00:25:10.149
will be able to oh suddenly have the


00:25:10.159 --> 00:25:12.149
sigh psychic abilities that they've


00:25:12.159 --> 00:25:14.070
always had unleashed and then they can


00:25:14.080 --> 00:25:15.909
start doing telekinetic things which is


00:25:15.919 --> 00:25:17.110
moving stuff and the stuff they're


00:25:17.120 --> 00:25:18.710
talking about moving is a random number


00:25:18.720 --> 00:25:20.230
generator on a computer which is


00:25:20.240 --> 00:25:21.110
interesting I don't know how you


00:25:21.120 --> 00:25:22.470
actually physically interact with that


00:25:22.480 --> 00:25:24.070
but never mind I can imagine doing a


00:25:24.080 --> 00:25:25.990
dial a physical analog dial but I don't


00:25:26.000 --> 00:25:27.350
know how you interfere with a digital


00:25:27.360 --> 00:25:28.950
thing with your psychic abilities


00:25:28.960 --> 00:25:30.870
problem is with this story if it was


00:25:30.880 --> 00:25:32.630
interesting it' be great it it would be


00:25:32.640 --> 00:25:34.390
fantastic a real breakthrough if it was


00:25:34.400 --> 00:25:35.750
true it would be a real breakthrough The


00:25:35.760 --> 00:25:37.110
trouble is, is it true? The only place


00:25:37.120 --> 00:25:39.269
I've seen this reported is in a paper in


00:25:39.279 --> 00:25:41.350
a publication that's one of those pay to


00:25:41.360 --> 00:25:42.870
publish sort of journals. You give us, I


00:25:42.880 --> 00:25:45.269
think, $35,000 US and we'll publish your


00:25:45.279 --> 00:25:46.549
paper. We'll review it, of course, and


00:25:46.559 --> 00:25:48.070
review the check. But we'll review the


00:25:48.080 --> 00:25:49.909
paper and you'll get it in the magazine.


00:25:49.919 --> 00:25:51.430
So, that's the only place I've seen this


00:25:51.440 --> 00:25:52.390
thing. Now, this should be a


00:25:52.400 --> 00:25:53.909
breakthrough. This should be everywhere.


00:25:53.919 --> 00:25:55.669
And I've been asking, I'm in Australia,


00:25:55.679 --> 00:25:57.669
so asking people in the US and in Canada


00:25:57.679 --> 00:25:58.870
what this is about. And they're having


00:25:58.880 --> 00:26:00.070
trouble finding this one down and


00:26:00.080 --> 00:26:01.590
locating any more information about


00:26:01.600 --> 00:26:03.190
this. Now I believe that the institution


00:26:03.200 --> 00:26:05.590
where the main researcher is located is


00:26:05.600 --> 00:26:08.230
called the Bayest Health Sciences. It's


00:26:08.240 --> 00:26:09.669
part of a university I think which I


00:26:09.679 --> 00:26:11.669
believe is true. It exists. The main


00:26:11.679 --> 00:26:13.669
doctor is known for having leanings


00:26:13.679 --> 00:26:16.149
towards the sort of psychic abilities


00:26:16.159 --> 00:26:18.549
and stuff. So it's probably not new to


00:26:18.559 --> 00:26:20.149
him. You've got to prove first of all


00:26:20.159 --> 00:26:22.549
that such abilities exist. That's been a


00:26:22.559 --> 00:26:25.350
very difficult thing to do convincingly.


00:26:25.360 --> 00:26:28.310
Been proven even though the skeptics


00:26:28.320 --> 00:26:30.310
have huge rewards out anyone who can.


00:26:30.320 --> 00:26:31.669
Yeah. One stage of skeptics had about


00:26:31.679 --> 00:26:33.909
$2.5 million going to anyone who can


00:26:33.919 --> 00:26:35.590
prove her psychic ability and no one


00:26:35.600 --> 00:26:37.190
has. The Australian skeptics have got


00:26:37.200 --> 00:26:38.950
$100,000. The Americans have got


00:26:38.960 --> 00:26:41.029
$500,000 US. So there's a lot of money


00:26:41.039 --> 00:26:42.630
out there that someone with true psychic


00:26:42.640 --> 00:26:44.310
ability could then go and claim and then


00:26:44.320 --> 00:26:45.909
they get the impromattor as a skeptic


00:26:45.919 --> 00:26:47.510
but they haven't done it. Psychics are


00:26:47.520 --> 00:26:49.029
actually very shy coming forward. Funny


00:26:49.039 --> 00:26:50.310
enough, a lot of other people do


00:26:50.320 --> 00:26:51.830
probably who definitely believe they can


00:26:51.840 --> 00:26:53.990
do what they say. A lot of psychics,


00:26:54.000 --> 00:26:55.590
people who come to me seem to definitely


00:26:55.600 --> 00:26:57.110
believe they have this psychic ability.


00:26:57.120 --> 00:26:58.950
that anyone under test so far under


00:26:58.960 --> 00:27:00.630
proper tests scientifically controlled


00:27:00.640 --> 00:27:01.909
tests no one's been able to win the


00:27:01.919 --> 00:27:03.510
money from us or from any other


00:27:03.520 --> 00:27:05.190
skeptical group it hasn't happened they


00:27:05.200 --> 00:27:06.870
haven't been able to prove beyond doubt


00:27:06.880 --> 00:27:08.870
that that they can actually do this even


00:27:08.880 --> 00:27:10.870
close to doubt so yeah this person has


00:27:10.880 --> 00:27:12.789
learned to or show that they can unlock


00:27:12.799 --> 00:27:14.390
this ability in people and that people


00:27:14.400 --> 00:27:16.470
can then use their psychic ability to


00:27:16.480 --> 00:27:18.789
move a random number generator that


00:27:18.799 --> 00:27:20.470
therefore that they prove it so all you


00:27:20.480 --> 00:27:23.350
have to do is zap everybody with RTMS I


00:27:23.360 --> 00:27:24.950
think it is with this particular


00:27:24.960 --> 00:27:26.789
treatment and you'll all be psychic if


00:27:26.799 --> 00:27:28.549
That was true. If this could be done,


00:27:28.559 --> 00:27:30.470
the world will be different. It would be


00:27:30.480 --> 00:27:32.070
a funny place. If you could really


00:27:32.080 --> 00:27:34.230
literally unleash the psychic ability of


00:27:34.240 --> 00:27:35.590
people, it would be a very interesting


00:27:35.600 --> 00:27:37.350
world. If the only thing they can do is


00:27:37.360 --> 00:27:39.669
is affect a digital random number


00:27:39.679 --> 00:27:41.269
generator, you wonder how useful it's


00:27:41.279 --> 00:27:42.549
going to be. And it's only it's only a


00:27:42.559 --> 00:27:44.430
zero and a one that they're looking


00:27:44.440 --> 00:27:46.549
at% chance anyway. Yeah. Yeah, that's


00:27:46.559 --> 00:27:48.390
right. But if you get an 80%, you know,


00:27:48.400 --> 00:27:50.390
success rate, 90% rate where they all


00:27:50.400 --> 00:27:52.070
come out zero. They all come out once or


00:27:52.080 --> 00:27:53.430
they all come out as you want them to


00:27:53.440 --> 00:27:55.190
come out. And as you said before, I want


00:27:55.200 --> 00:27:56.950
this to be a one. Comes up a one.


00:27:56.960 --> 00:27:59.110
There's a lot of tests for a 50% result


00:27:59.120 --> 00:28:00.710
by chance to try and make sure it's not


00:28:00.720 --> 00:28:03.029
chance. Just because you may have gotten


00:28:03.039 --> 00:28:05.430
five ones in a row doesn't mean it's


00:28:05.440 --> 00:28:08.549
100%. It it still means a 50/50 chance,


00:28:08.559 --> 00:28:10.149
just that it's happened five times.


00:28:10.159 --> 00:28:11.590
That's right. This is called the Monte


00:28:11.600 --> 00:28:13.350
Carlo effect. Yes. Where people believe


00:28:13.360 --> 00:28:15.110
that if you go to a roulette wheel and


00:28:15.120 --> 00:28:17.190
it comes out red five times in a row or


00:28:17.200 --> 00:28:18.630
10 times in a row, it's going to be


00:28:18.640 --> 00:28:20.549
black the next time. Not necessarily cuz


00:28:20.559 --> 00:28:22.230
each turn of the dial is exactly has the


00:28:22.240 --> 00:28:23.990
same odds to get that many together.


00:28:24.000 --> 00:28:25.350
Yes, it's unusual but it's not an


00:28:25.360 --> 00:28:26.389
indication that things are going to


00:28:26.399 --> 00:28:28.230
change. So you the Monte Carlo effect is


00:28:28.240 --> 00:28:29.510
a common thing, a common issue with


00:28:29.520 --> 00:28:30.789
gamblers. You think, well, it must


00:28:30.799 --> 00:28:32.230
change. My luck must change. You know,


00:28:32.240 --> 00:28:33.830
the turnouts can't be this way. Well,


00:28:33.840 --> 00:28:35.590
they can be because if one roll of the


00:28:35.600 --> 00:28:37.590
dice 50/50 chance, the next roll of the


00:28:37.600 --> 00:28:39.830
dice is also a 50/50 chance. Each one is


00:28:39.840 --> 00:28:41.110
independent. They don't affect each


00:28:41.120 --> 00:28:42.710
other. And that's what the Monte Carlo


00:28:42.720 --> 00:28:44.149
effect is supposed to be. Previous


00:28:44.159 --> 00:28:46.470
events are influencing future events.


00:28:46.480 --> 00:28:47.990
Doesn't happen. Certainly not in


00:28:48.000 --> 00:28:49.190
gambling. Probably won't happen with a


00:28:49.200 --> 00:28:50.950
random number generator either. That's


00:28:50.960 --> 00:28:55.220
Tim Mindum from Australian


00:28:55.230 --> 00:29:08.110
[Music]


00:29:08.120 --> 00:29:11.430
Skeptics. And that's the show for now.


00:29:11.440 --> 00:29:13.350
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